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Chapter 1: What is a project?
1.1 Definition of Project
A project is a series of tasks that need to be accomplished to pursue a specific result. A project can also be defined as a set of inputs and outputs required to reach a goal. Projects can range from simple to complex and can be managed by one person or many. Projects are often described and delegated by a manager or executive. They go over their expectations and goals and the team are expected to manage logistics and execute the project in a timely manner. Sometimes deadlines can be given or a time limitation.
1.2 Project vs Operations
A project is temporary in nature, having a definite start and end date, and produces a unique output. Projects are conducted to obtain the organization’s strategic purposes and are considered above and beyond normal organizational operations. Operations, however, are the ongoing, repetitive activities that are involved in the organization’s primary business. They are activities such as staffing management, payroll, product production, service delivery, etc. As such, operations include all the “normal” business functions. Both projects and operations are:
- Done by people
- Controlled by limited resources (such as people, money, equipment, and time)
- Planned, executed, and controlled
However, projects:
- Are led to attain an objective and then terminate
- Organize activities that are not supported under the organization’s normal operations
- Are directly associated to the achievement of the organization’s strategic plan Whereas operations:
- Are on-going and required to sustain the business
1.3 Relationship between Project, Program, Portfolio
Projects are temporary endeavors to create one or more deliverables. Programs are larger initiatives that are broken up into a set of smaller projects and subprograms and then coordinated centrally. The projects in a program are related to each other. Portfolios are collections of work (projects, programs, or sub-portfolios) and are a way to plan and manage the projects from an organization perspective. The projects may or may not be related. A portfolio, program, and project- though similar they may sound, their meaning and usage is quite different. Now that we know what a project is, let’s look at program and portfolios. Program Programs are clustered within a portfolio and comprise of subprograms, projects, or other work that are managed in a coordinated manner in support of the portfolio. Programs are so large that they must be broken down into smaller units (projects or subprogram) to distribute the responsibilities and ease the work. The process of breaking down the
Portfolio A portfolio refers to a group of projects, programs, sub-portfolios, and operations managed as a group to achieve strategic objectives. A portfolio includes both projects and programs and is managed by a portfolio manager. The portfolio is directly drawn from the strategic business plan of the organization. Important decisions like investment are made at the portfolio level. For example, consider the case of an automobile company. The unique designs of various cars will denote programs, and the design of cars, in general, will denote portfolio. To understand the concept better, take help of diagram. In this, a portfolio is divided into one project and two programs and a sub-portfolio outside of the scope of both the projects:
1.4 Features of Project
The distinctive features of a project are as follows:
1. Objectives: A project has a fixed set of objectives. Once the objectives have been accomplished, the project concludes. 2. Life Span: A project cannot continue infinitely. It must come to an end. What represents the completion would normally be spelt out in the set of objectives. 3. Single entity: A project is one entity and is normally entrusted to one responsibility center while the contributors to the project are many. 4. Team-work: A project demands for team-work. The team again is constituted of members from different disciplines, organizations and even countries. 5. Life-cycle: A project has a life cycle reflected by growth, maturity and decay. It has naturally a learning component. 6. Uniqueness: No two projects are exactly similar. The location, the infra-structure, the agencies and the people make each project exclusive. 7. Change:
Every project has risk and uncertainty associated with it. The degree of risk and uncertainty will depend on how a project has passed through its various life-cycle phases. An ill-defined project will have extremely high degree of risk and uncertainty. There simply cannot be a project without any risk and uncertainty. 1.5 Measuring Project Success There are many indicators of project success, but what do you need to be measuring while the project is in motion? Let’s look at the five things you should be evaluating.
1. Schedule Project management success is often determined by whether you kept to the original timeline or not. The schedule evaluation is something you can do more formally at the end of the stage or phase, or as part of a monthly report to your senior stakeholder group or Project Board. Look at your major milestones and check if they still fall on the same dates as you originally agreed. Work out the slippage, if any, and how much of an impact this will have on your overall project timescales. 2. Quality The end of a project phase is a good time for a quality review. A quality review can evaluate whether what you are doing meets the standards set out in your quality plans. Best find out now before the project goes too far, as it might be too late to do anything about it then.
3. Cost Many executives would rate cost management as one of their highest priorities on a project, so evaluating how the project is performing financially is crucial. We can look forward and re-forecast the budget to the end of the project. Comparing this to your original estimate and making sure it is close enough is important for your management team to feel that the work is on track. If the forecasts go up too much it is a sign that the spending will be out of control by the end of the project. 4. Stakeholder Satisfaction Stakeholders – are essential in getting much of the work done. Finding out how they feel about the project at present and what you could be doing differently is worth checking. 5. Team satisfaction This is more subjective in nature and is often overlooked when evaluating project success. But, team satisfaction should be at the top of your success criteria as they’re the ones who are the key not only to the current project success but to the future projects too. They also have deeper insights that even the top stakeholders may not have.
1.6 Phases of a Project
Projects are divided into six stages:
- Initiation
- Definition
- Planning
been defined. This must be communicated to all the stakeholders to get their agreement. Any differences of opinion must be resolved before work starts.
Planning
The key to a successful project is in the planning. Creating a project plan is the first task that should be done while undertaking any project. Often project planning is ignored in favor of getting on with the work. However, many people fail to realize the value of a project plan in saving time, money and for avoiding many other problems.
Execution
This is where the work to deliver the product, service or wanted result is carried out. Most of the work related to the project is realized at this stage and needs complete attention from the project manager.
Monitoring & Control
Once the project is running it is important the project manager keeps control. This is achieved by regular reporting of issues, risks, progress and the constant checking of the business case to make sure that the expected benefits will be delivered and are still valid.
Closure
Often neglected, it is important to make sure the project is closed properly. Many projects do not have a clear end-point because there is no formal sign-off. It is important to get the customers’ agreement that the project has ended, and no more work will be carried out. Once closed, the project manager should review the project and record the good and bad points, so that in the future, successes can be repeated, and failures avoided. A project that is not closed will continue to consume resources.
c. When a project is about to complete, it starts a new project to shift the work to the next generation of deliverables. d. Don’ know
Chapter 2: Project Execution
Methodologies
2.1 Waterfall Model
The Waterfall Model is a linear or sequential approach to project management and works based on fixed dates, requirements, and outcomes. Teams do not require consistent communication and, unless specific integrations are required, can be self-contained. Team members can also work independently and are often required to provide status reports somewhat less frequently (when compared to an agile approach).
2.1.1 How does Waterfall work?
A typical Waterfall project is chronological and is made up of the following phases:
- Requirements
- Design
- Implementation
- Verification
- Maintenance
Implementation Implementation teams work to the design to create, code, implement, and test the solution. It is crucial that the single written document be as clear as possible, as the team who designs the system may or may not be the same. If changes are required during the implementation phase (due to unforeseen issues with the design, integrations, or even changes to the intended function of the system), this necessitates that a new design be created and signed off on before the implementation is completed. Verification Acceptance tests are then deployed and executed in the verification phase, with the built solution further tested against the requirements to confirm that the project meets initial expectations. If it does not, then an examination is performed to identify the shortfalls and a review is completed to determine any ratification actions. Maintenance Finally, as defects are raised, or new versions of products are needed (maybe because they are no longer supported), planned changes are made by a dedicated ownership team. With the Waterfall Model, each stage can only continue when each of the previous stages are completed and signed off.
2.1.2 Where is Waterfall model suitable?
The Waterfall Methodology has been widely used in the past to get projects completed against a deadline, at a given cost, and to a predefined quality.
- This model is used only when the requirements are very well known, clear and fixed.
- Product definition is stable.
- Technology is understood.
- There are no ambiguous requirements
- Ample resources with required expertise are available freely
- The project is short. In Waterfall model, very less customer interaction is involved during the development of the product. Once the product is ready then only it can be demonstrated to the end users. Once the product is developed and if any failure occurs then the cost of fixing such issues are very high, because we need to update everything from document till the logic.
2.1.3 Advantages, Disadvantages of Waterfall Model
As with most methodologies, the Waterfall Model comes with just as many benefits as constraints that can impact a project. Let’s look at some of the benefits and constraints you will need to balance with getting your project out of the door. Advantages:
- The project scope stays relatively static, meaning cost and timelines can be determined early in the project.
- By completing a full design early in the project, changes to systems stay minimal, meaning the cost to fix and alter designs is kept low.
- A structured approach to a project means that everyone understands what needs to be done and when. SMEs can effectively plan their time over the fixed period.
- By having detailed documentation and designs, a project can lose key members without too much hassle since the documentation describes in reasonable detail how any SME of the product or skill are needed to complete the work.
each development activity, there is a testing activity corresponding to it. Verification: It involves static analysis technique (review) done without executing code. It is the process of evaluation of the product development phase to find whether specified requirements meet. Validation: It involves dynamic analysis technique (functional, non- functional), testing done by executing code. Validation is the process to evaluate the software after the completion of the development phase to determine whether software meets the customer expectations and requirements. So, V-Model contains Verification phases on one side of the Validation phases on the other side. Verification and Validation phases are joined by coding phase in V-shape. Thus, it is called V-Model.
2.2.1 How does V-Model work?
The V-model provides guidance that testing needs to begin as early as possible in the life cycle. It also shows that testing is not only an execution- based activity. There are a variety of activities that need to be performed before the end of the coding phase. These activities should be carried out in parallel with development activities.
2.2.2 Where is V-model suitable?
V- model is suitable when:
- used for small to medium sized projects where requirements are clearly defined and fixed.
- chosen when ample technical resources are available with needed technical expertise.
- Where requirements are clearly defined and fixed.
- The V-Model is used when ample technical resources are available with technical expertise.
