types of conditioning | Schemes and Mind Maps Psychology

Types of learning

1. Classical conditioning: Discovered by Russian physiologistIvan Pavlov,

classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This

learning process creates a conditioned response through associations

between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus.

Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally

occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the

sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to

food. By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the unconditioned stimulus

(food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response.

Criticism about classical conditioning: classical conditioning involves

placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic

experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally

occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral

stimulus (sound) with the unconditioned stimulus (food), the sound of the tone

alone could produce the salivation response.

2. Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to

asinstrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards

and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association

is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or

positive) for that behavior.

For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a

food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they

receive a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the

green light is on and avoid the red light.

Criticism about operant conditioning: Operant conditioning can be used

to explain a wide variety of behaviors, from the process of learning, to addiction

andlanguage acquisition. It also has practical application (such as token economy)

which can be applied in classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals.

However, operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited

andcognitive factorsin learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the

learning process in humans and animals.

For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a

flash of insight rather than be trial and error learning. Also,social learning

theory(Bandura, 1977) suggests that humans can learn automatically through

observation rather than through personal experience.

The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of

extrapolation. Somepsychologistsargue we cannot generalize from studies on

animals to humans as their anatomy and physiology is different from humans, and

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Types of learning

1. Classical conditioning: Discovered by Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov, classical conditioning is a type of unconscious or automatic learning. This learning process creates a conditioned response through associations between an unconditioned stimulus and a neutral stimulus. Classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the unconditioned stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response. Criticism about classical conditioning: classical conditioning involves placing a neutral stimulus before a naturally occurring reflex. In Pavlov's classic experiment with dogs, the neutral signal was the sound of a tone and the naturally occurring reflex was salivating in response to food. By associating the neutral stimulus (sound) with the unconditioned stimulus (food), the sound of the tone alone could produce the salivation response. 2. Operant conditioning: Operant conditioning, sometimes referred to as instrumental conditioning, is a method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an association is made between a behavior and a consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior. For example, when lab rats press a lever when a green light is on, they receive a food pellet as a reward. When they press the lever when a red light is on, they receive a mild electric shock. As a result, they learn to press the lever when the green light is on and avoid the red light. Criticism about operant conditioning: Operant conditioning can be used to explain a wide variety of behaviors, from the process of learning, to addiction and language acquisition. It also has practical application (such as token economy) which can be applied in classrooms, prisons and psychiatric hospitals. However, operant conditioning fails to take into account the role of inherited and cognitive factors in learning, and thus is an incomplete explanation of the learning process in humans and animals. For example, Kohler (1924) found that primates often seem to solve problems in a flash of insight rather than be trial and error learning. Also, social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) suggests that humans can learn automatically through observation rather than through personal experience. The use of animal research in operant conditioning studies also raises the issue of extrapolation. Some psychologists argue we cannot generalize from studies on animals to humans as their anatomy and physiology is different from humans, and

they cannot think about their experiences and invoke reason, patience, memory or self-comfort.

3. Observational learning: Observational learning describes the process of learning by watching others, retaining the information, and then later replicating the behaviors that were observed. There are a number of learning theories, such as classical conditioning and operant conditioning, that emphasize how direct experience, reinforcement, or punishment can lead to learning. However, a great deal of learning happens indirectly. For example, think about how a child may watch adults waving at one another and then imitates these actions later on. A tremendous amount of learning happens through this process. In psychology, this is referred to as observational learning. Observational learning is sometimes called shaping, modeling, and vicarious reinforcement. While it can take place at any point in life, it tends to be the most common during childhood. It also plays an important role in the socialization process. Children learn how to behave and respond to others by observing how their parent(s) and/or caregivers interact with other people. Criticism about observational learning: Observational learning has the potential to teach and reinforce or decrease certain behaviors based on a variety of factors. Particularly prevalent in childhood, observational learning can be a key part of how we learn new skills and learn to avoid consequences. However, there has also been concern about how this type of learning can lead to negative outcomes and behaviors. Some studies, inspired by Bandura's research, focused on the effects observational learning may have on children and teenagers. For example, previous research drew a direct connection between playing certain violent video games and an increase in aggression in the short term. However, later research that focused on the short- and long-term impact video games may have on players has shown no direct connections between video game playing and violent behavior. Difference between classical and operant conditioning: Classical conditioning involves associating an involuntary response and a stimulus, while operant conditioning is about associating a voluntary behavior and a consequence. In operant conditioning, the learner is also rewarded with incentives, while classical conditioning involves no such enticements. Also, classical conditioning is passive on the part of the learner, while operant conditioning requires the learner to actively participate and perform some type of action in order to be rewarded or punished. For operant conditioning to work, the subject must first display a behavior that can then be either rewarded or punished. Classical conditioning, on the other hand, involves forming an association with some sort of already naturally occurring event.

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Types of learning