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The evaluation of managerial functions in the context of modern management theories Assoc. Prof. Ing. Eva Čáslavová, Ph.D. UK FTVS, Prague
In my contribution I would like to focus on managerial functions, its progress in modern management school theories and point out current implementation in the field of sports in the Czech Republic. The basic theme of managerial work is content and concept of managerial activities (functions). Managerial functions are performed by any leading worker whether he/she is leading manufacturing concern, sport organization or military unit and formation. Theoretical works in the present modern management trend pursued and are pursuing managerial functions classification and content. These theories resulting especially from manufacturing organization case studies do have so stable theoretical content that it can be and is implemented in non-manufacturing organizations. Classification of managerial functions has proved necessary for arrangement of organization management findings. It is true, that individual authors have classified different number of managing functions and the curiosity is up to 19 managerial functions by American author J. B. Miner, but the most popular is classification by Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich. They have defined 5 managerial functions:
- Planning,
- Organizing,
- Staffing,
- Leading,
- Controlling. In the follow-up explanation I will concentrate on above classification of managerial functions and its impact and differentiation in present modern management theories. These functions are also termed as sequential managerial functions, since they are implemented step by step in logical sequence (Diagram 1). Every sequential function is permeated with running functions such as communication, decision-making, implementation, which is not going to be a subject of my contribution.
Planning This managerial function has been primarily developed alongside formation of entrepreneurial strategy and its school of thought shall be implemented both in sport organizations and military units and formation. Preference of strategic planning is given by motivation of uncertainty and risk reduction in the long-term development in concrete organization. The ground is formed by:
- H. Igor Ansoff (1990) “Implanting strategic management“,
- Michael E. Porter (1980) “Competitive Strategy“,
- Gary Hamel (1994) “Competing for the Future“. At present, a synthesis made by the Czech authors Vodáček and Vodáčková (2001) is on the basis of a world management literature dividing the strategy defining process into 7 phases: a) S tatement of mission Statement of the main mission and philosophy of the organization. b) Analysis of initial state, particularly strengths and weaknesses of the organization Analyzing not only in entrepreneurial environment but elsewhere it is desirable. It analyzes, first and foremost, comparison with potential competition and procedures for further projection activities.
c) Analysis of potential development resources and creation of specific strengths of the organization including analysis of use of resources efficiency The point is an originative interconnection of strengths and weaknesses analysis with resource conditions leading to creation of strong position of the organization in the intended term. d) Statement of objectives for speculated strategy
Diagram 1 – System conception of management
Source: Koontz, Weihrich 1988
Framework of objectives is the issue of the organization’s top management. It is important to define parameters for each objective (content, way of achievement or analyzing, term, connection to framework of planning etc.). It is recommended, ideally, to set relatively small number of objectives (4-6) according to the organization’s type of activity. e) S tatement of scripts and selection of an appropriate strategy Chosen script predefines detailed elaboration of general selected strategy as well as elaboration of partial strategies for separate autonomous components of organization or fields of activity. f) Analysis of selected strategy suitableness Organization must be prepared for the changing conditions; opportunities, threatens in the follow-up implementation process
Managerial knowledge, erquirement objectives and use of inputs
(^3) other 2. (^) limitations 1. (^) opportunities and information External variables
Mea ns of communication
Planning
Organizing
Staffing
Leading
Controlling
Resulting outputs
Inputs
- Human
- Capital
- Managerial
- Technological
Objectives of input requirements
- Employees 5. Governments
- Consumers 6. Organizations
- Suppliers 7. Other
- Shareholders
System regenerating
Selection, assignment and assessment of workmates (staffing) This managerial function lies in ability to ensure an appropriate selection of good and long-faithful workmates, their assignments according to specialization, fair assessment and further professional development. It is intentionally said as workmates – cooperation among personnel - modern management is interested in originative and loyal approach than in simple recruitment of workers. Modern management lays a great emphasis on personnel affairs. Some authors talk about “human resource management” as a separate field or possibly about “personal management”. They usually include some parts of other managerial functions in their theories (in particular planning and leading) and this area often becomes autonomous. Selection and assignment of workers work on manpower planning and is based on analysis of capacity requirements for works in process or works considered in the future. Uniqueness is occurring in the field of sport chiefly in non-profit organizations which cooperate with volunteers. We can hardly monitor their occupational qualifications for selection, but it is rather oriented on time and location, in particular for sport events.
Leading Modern management gives a great amount of findings, opinions, experience, methods and approaches how to achieve an active and quality participation of workers in meeting the organization’s mission and objectives. These methods and approaches are focused on workers, who lead bigger teams, to control the whole spectrum of approaches necessary for personnel managing with a different need of authoritative and autonomous decision making. In historical connection, these approaches result from theories X and Y originated in the 1950s dealt in work „The Human Side of Enterprise“ (1989) by D. McGregor. In modern management a work by J.A. Pearc and R.B. Robinson is a follow-up to it and deals with transition from autocratic to liberal managing, possibly to full liberty of participation in organization’s activities. This managerial function pays high attention to personnel motivation. Modern management distinguishes three types of motivation: a) Theories of understanding of motivation reasons The most popular theories are:
- Maslow’s “Hierarchy of needs theory“ focuses on specific functions adjusting it to the considered conditions. These functions use sociological economic analysis designed to particular needs measure.
- Herzberg’s “Two factors theory” was originated in the later 1950s, despite of this fact, it ranks among the most popular motivation theory. The first group of factors comprises motivators and the second hygienic factors. Present management deals with determination of economically adequate limits by static testing to ensure that hygienic factors do not have dissatisfactory influence. Another research orientates on intensity and economic benefit of each motivation factor in comparison with costs, elicitation and duration. (Herzberg’s work “Managerial Choice: To be Efficient and to be Human“).
- Alderfer´s “ERG theory” has a similar conception as above mentioned theories, it divides human theories into three hierarchical groups: Provision of existence, Provision of social relations with working environment, Provision of personal or vocational and qualifications growth.
- McClelland’s “need for success achievement theory” focuses on three levels of hierarchically sorted motivations. It is based on: Need for affiliation Need for power,
Need for achievement.
b) Theories of course of the motivation process These theories focus on elicitation, duration, regulation, preservation and termination of motivation action. It involves:
- Vroom’s “expectancy theory” pays attention to estimate, evaluate and monitor personal objectives and interests,
- Porter’s and Lawler’s “extended expectancy model” works on the fact that employee’s expected motivation reward is decisive for the strength of motivation efforts in comparison with anticipated efforts and risks of achievement (Managerial Attitudes and Performance),
- Adams’s “equity theory” deals with rewards with respect to costs incurred to the employee in comparison with other employees,
- Skinner’s “reinforcement theory” considers that previous findings, impressions and experience do considerably influence human reaction to similar situations in presence. Skinner defines four possible motivation methods – positive motivation, negative motivation, activity strangling and negative punishment.
c) Theories of specific propose This group of motivation method assigns specific attitudes suitable for managerial applications to the above mentioned groups. They are as follows:
- Employee’s participation in decision making; this application deals with participation usefulness, gravity of occurred problems and a way of participation choice,
- Manager’s self-motivation which deals with participation in achieved output, need for passing the risks of hard and responsible activities.
- Other motivation attitudes; comprising motivation programs to raise quality of working life or involvement of employees to internal business activities.
All theories mentioned above hold an important position for sport practice. However, I would say that sport organizations in the Czech environment do not intentionally and continuously deal with motivation and motivators. Details show results of research aimed at personnel matters in sport organizations in Prague, which was carried out by Sport Management Department in the years 2007-2009. We can also say that using of motivation methods requires ability of creative thought and knowledge of managing psychology. Despite its great importance, some managers welcome rather simple practical advice. (Vodáček, 2000) Literature of modern management differentiates between general functional managing of personnel and different version of leadership forms. Differentiation occurs also at carrier of both forms - managers in the first case and creative managers or leaders in the second case. Creative managing confesses a great expansion in modern management theories. There are various classifications of present attitudes towards leadership, which are divided into three groups in conception of modern management:
a) Characteristic features of leader At present, these theories are based on opinion that some of the characteristic features of leader are rather congenital (energy, partial intelligence, assertiveness and behaviour), but either must be consequentially developed or can be fully developed. The present managerial literature analysis carried out by Vodáček (2000) shows that for good creative leaders are usually typical following abilities:
- implementation concept. Control methods and practices are used according to classified control process. Modern management deals with recommendations for effective controlling (Vodáček 2000). We can emphasize following recommendations:
- to plan and organize control procedure in accordance with evaluated managerial process content,
- to pay attention to economy of control process ,
- to pay attention to the right timing of control and notice significant differences about planned intentions,
- to ensure adequate control quality ,
- to respect differences resulting from organizational parameters of controlled groups,
- to work on declaration of power and responsibility, independence factor and function of controlled employees and teams,
- ideally, to use simple control procedures, but it can not be at the expense of reliability and profundity of control results,
- to suggest practicable and economical remedial action. Control specifics in business organizations and citizens associations in the field of sport appear in:
- choice of critical points and standards of control it is primarily grounded on meeting the objectives and programs serving as control points, further on economics standards – costs, revenues, capital.
- time shift of budget according to accounting period and budget by sport season serving as a base for decision making.
Managerial activities in the field of sport work both on general activity concept and content and are specific according to sport aspects. The high effectiveness of sports organization’s activities can be only achieved in mutual harmony of these aspects. For that reasons, there was founded a field of study Management of Physical Education and Sport at the UK FTVS in 1996. It was the first in the Czech Republic engaging in sport organizations management.
Bibliography: Čáslavová, E. Management a marketing sportu. Praha : Olympia, 2009. 176 s. Drucker, P.F. Management Challenges for 21st Century. New York : Harper Collins, 1999. Koontz, H., Weihrich, H. Management. Singapure : McGraw Hill, , 1988. 659 s. Vodáček, L., Vodáčková, O. Management. Teorie a praxe informační společnosti. 4. vyd. Praha : Management Press, 2001. 314s.
