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Unit 1 Introduction History of Science The origin of science may be traced back to the earliest times. Its roots go down to the deepest strata of human history and to the darkness long before the beginning of human civilization. The history of science, therefore, can be said to have begun with the history of human existence. During the enormous stretch of time before the beginning of human civilizations, the earliest homo sapiens invented rudiments of practical rules of craft warranted by the necessities for their existence and survival. It is inferred that even during the period of Cro-Magnon man or the Neanderthal man of the post primate ages, some sort of stone equipment were used for hunting for food. Agriculture was yet unknown. History indicates that these Paleolithic men of the old stone age might have tried to make boats, houses or earthen pots apart from making use of crude stone arms for hunting. But the Neolithic men of the new stone age were comparatively more advanced; they knew agriculture and reared domestic animals, made houses and more or less lived in groups. They probably knew fire-making and crude methods of cooking. They made better flint equipment and even knew the use of copper for making ornaments. Thus, with the passage of time, the early homo sapiens, probably discovered accidently or through crude trial and error, such practical arts as fire-making, cooking, (flint sharpening and the- processes such as making earthen pots, weave baskets, build boats and houses, paint curves on flat surfaces, or use of metal for making arms and ornaments. Such abilities imply observation of matter and events and an effort to use them for survival. These activities, thus, may be said to resemble science. Nothing much can be said of this enormous stretch of time of human existence till about 4000 B.C. By then the men began to live in organized social groups in some geographically con- genial places of the earth. History records, that the human civilization thus began in Mesopotamia, Egypt and other places. These people, - among other things, knew the art of building, smelting, time-telling, use of metals; they observed the effect of heavenly bodies as the Sun, the Moon and the stars on agriculture. The people of these civilizations acquired the greatest attribute of science, that is, the art of writing, which their predecessors lacked and for the absence of which nothing much could be known of their achievements. As mentioned above something recognisable as more or less Science began in Mesopotamian & Egypt during these periods. The written records of the study of the movement of the heavenly bodies, architectural designs, metallurgy, medicine, the methods of time-telling, and making of calendar justify this. The study of astronomy was in progress even before the period of the Pyramids. History reveals that during this period of Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilisation,
the Sumerians, Babylonians and Assyrians and the Egyptians made contributions in the era of science from the utilitarian point of view. The credit for inventing the sun dial and water-clock goes to the Egyptians. The Sumerians are credited with the invention of symbols and scripts for writing. It is said that the Assyrians were better observers than the Egyptians and were able to use arithmetic and algebra. They could name the constellations, taking help of which the Egyptian priests could make annual calendars. Both Assyrians and Egyptians knew weighing and used balances and were familiar with the ideas of mass, length and time. People of these two civilisations were good engineers and knew the smelter's techniques. Egyptians and the Mesopotamians, it is said, even knew the techniques of making glass and glazes for pottery There are records of advances made in the area of medicine as well as some other branches of useful arts. Such a state of practical science continued in these and other civilisations till the time of the Greeks around 600 B.C, when the age of theoretical science began; a science based on logic and reasoning. Similar advances were also made in the Eastern civilisations of China and India during those periods, but there is hardly any good written account of the achievements of these civilisations. We know from whatever record available that the Hindus are credited with the discovery of zero and the decimal system. About the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation, S.F. Mason, in his book History of Science states that "civilised society arose in India as it did in Mesopotamia, Egypt and China with bronze-age culture in a river valley. As yet however, not a great deal is known concerning the civilisation of Indus which flourished around 3000 B.C. The people of Indus Valley civilisation had pictographic scripts and decimal numeral system. They used the same fast spinning potter's wheel as the Sumerians and alloyed copper with tin to make bronze, but they wove cotton rather than flax or wool of the West or the silk of the East About 2000 BC, however, the civilisation of Indus became extinct. The cause of extinction of Indus Valley Civilisation was probably due to Aryan invasion and establishment of a different social order and a religious and ritualistic philosophy which may not have helped the growth of practical sciences Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa (now in Pakistan) revealed a lot about the civilisation that flourished by the bank of the river Indus, three to four thousand years 8.c. It revealed a systematic order of town planning, good drainage system and use of kiln fired bricks indicating high order of workmanship. Various metal vessels, ornaments, indicate their knowledge of forging techniques. Other relics discovered indicate existence of industry, farming and trade. There is no doubt that there were civilisations in China and India as old as the Mesopotamian and Egyptian degree of scientific development in different fields.
Aristotle, Archylas, Eudoxus, Calliju's, Hicetas, Manae-chmus, Dinostratus, Euclid, Aristarchus. Archmedes, Eratos-thenes, Appolonius, Hipparchus, Heron, Meneleus, Ptolemy, Diophantus, Papus and many others. With the fall of Greek civilisation and the death of the philosophers and the scientists of Greece, a dark period prevailed upon the earth. The progress of civilisation, as if came to a temporary halt in Europe, almost nothing significant could be added to the practical science that existed and the theoretical scientific ideas of the Greeks during the long stretch of about a thousand years till the end of the middle ages. The dark, age continued up to the twelfth and thirteenth centuries and there was almost complete intellectual stagnancy, especially in Europe. But the world was now ready for the transition of a new phase of regeneration eventually leading to the emergence of Renaissance in Europe. People began to feel that the new knowledge of the world as explored and their immediate environment as well as the advent of industrial and trade movement, warranted a different approach to science, that is, experimental science. The ancient science could no longer satisfy their physical and mental needs; they began to rely only on what they actually found rather than what the ancients had written or told. Thus, we find that the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries, heralded the dawn of the new science, the experimental science. The development of printing techniques during the later part of the fifteenth century made all kinds of publications easier and the dissemination of ideas became wider. The scientists of the period began to verify the scientific ideas handed down by the Greeks and other ancient civilisations. For example, the Polish priest Copernicus (1473-1543) published his theory establishing the Sun as stationary and other planets moving around it. This had directly challenged the old order of Aristotle or Ptolemy. The Italian genius of the fifteenth century, Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) gave great support to the new approaches to science through his drawings in anatomy and the biological and physical scientific objects. Though known to the world as a great painter, Leo-hardo was, in fact, a versatile genius. He was not only an artist, but also a scientist, an architect, an engineer and a sculptor. As Prof. Marco Rosci of the University of Turin said, Leonardo's scientific deductions based on life around him were several centuries ahead of his time. His sketches and drawings on scientific events and anatomy revealed his superb universal vision. The scientists of the sixteenth century realised the nature of science but they found it difficult to evolve the right procedure to discover the working or happening of things. The first man to show the world the technique of understanding nature was the Italian genius Galilio Galilei (1564-1642) recognised as the founder of modern experimental science. He taught the world the right scientific attitude, that is, to base science on correct observation and experimentation
to prove facts of science. He is famous for his experimentation on falling bodies, work on the pendulum and projectiles and the invention of the telescope. He challenged the Greek ideas on science traditionally prevalent in the society of the time and had to suffer for it. Some historians, however, feel that some injustice had been done to the Greek scientist Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) who actually inaugurated experimentation in science and the world still uses the famous Archimedes' Principle of hydrostatics. In this connection, it may be mentioned that according to history, when the Macedonians conquered Greece, the centre of learning was shifted to Alexandria and other Greek speaking areas. It is said that in Alexandria, science received a practical or experimental bias to some extent. The chemical laboratories, there were used for experimentation in distillation, evaporation and condensation as well as on properties of gases. History of Science Teaching In spite of the achievements in various fields of science, even up to the nineteenth century, science did not find its place as a regular part of general education. Science was pursued by only the interested classes of people and lectures on discussions on science were organised by some universities and social agencies only in places where they had an audience interested in science. But historically speaking traces of awakening towards learning of science as a part of general education goes back to the early medieval period in western Europe. After the Greek era, the world passed through a dark age stretching for more than a thousand years without any notable addition to the world of knowledge. Later, Greek learning which spread to the West during the eleventh and twelfth centuries through the Arabs, signalled the dawn of dissemination of new knowledge including science. Such knowledge reached some universities through sporadic efforts. By the thirteenth century, however. the study of Aristotalian philosophy spread to the universities of Western Europe and special emphasis was laid on the study of logic and mathematics. But the period was such that the con-temporary Europe and England were under the dominance of religious orders. Society of the time was also orthodox and there was absolute control of the church orders on the society. It was the period when new ideas which went against the prevailing beliefs in the society or contradicted to the slightest extent the religious orders, were not only resisted but were branded heretic. Under such circumstances, the introduction or emergence of new knowledge initially received resistance from the church orders. Two great scholars of the time, Albertus Magnus (Germany, 1200 - 1280) and Thomas Aquinas (Italy, 1225-1274) endeavoured to make new knowledge of the Greeks acceptable to the Church. Both were renowned philosophers and theologians of the thirteenth century.
colleague of Faraday, scientist of the same period, tried popularising physics as a part of general education. Michael Faraday (1791-1867), who was an experimental scientist, was a strong protagonist of developing scientific mental disposition in the science learner. But in spite of the efforts of these great men to popularise science as a part of general education, it was yet to gain a place in the regular curriculum of studies. During this period, a number of societies were formed in Europe and England such as " Academie des Sciences (1793) " Royal Society (1660) and " Royal Institution (1799). These societies made significant efforts towards popularisation of science education in universities and schools. This period was also marked by many interesting scientific discoveries and inventions made by some amateur scientists of Europe and England who pursued experimentation in science for their own interest in the subject. Their practical demonstrations attracted attention of the public. Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), also called the first civilised American, made similar efforts in America. The " Society of Arts " was formed in London and the " Literary and Philosophical Society " in Manchester during the end of the eighteenth century. Then the " Royal Institute of Great Britain " was established in 1799 The " Department of Science and Arts " was established in England in 1853. It is said that John Anderson was the first to start lectures on experimental physics in the " Mechanics Institute, Glasgow, England in 1823 and Thomas Hall to start the first lessons on practical chemistry in 1847 of the City of London School. By then public seemed to have been conscious to some extent of the new trend in science education as revealed by appointment of committees and commissions to enquire into the state of education in England. Much information in this connection is available in reports of the Royal Commission of Education, Report of Devonshire Commission, Spens Report, Norwood Report, etc. The Royal Commission of Education mentioned about the sorry state of science education in England. It was reported that natural science was taught as an elective to language at Rugby. Later, however, physics was introduced there in 1837 and botany and chemistry in 1859. The Report of the Devonshire Commission of 1895 contains details of the state of science teaching in the schools of England. It may be mentioned here that introduction of science as a subject in the Oxford and Cambridge universities of England also encouraged the schools to include science as a teaching subject at the secondary level. The report of the Devonshire Commission subsequently led to the introduction of different subjects of science in large number of secondary schools of England. One of the staunch advocates of science teaching of the nineteenth century was H.E. Armstrong who made significant contribution towards popularising the teaching of science in secondary schools. He even developed a method of
teaching science which later came to be known popularly as the " Heuristic Method ". The Science Masters Association of England published a periodical School Science Review which also helped in popularising science education in England and in creating favourable public opinion. It must, however, be admitted that the World War of 1914- 18 intensified the importance of science education and the world was convinced of the need for science education in the modern world. During the War, Thomson Committee was appointed in 1916 to study the position of science education in England. Further, the " Norwood Report” of 1943 also dealt with school science education and incorporated recommendations for better science education. Finally, the Education Act of 1944, included necessary provisions for wider science education in that country. The advances of science and technology during the twentieth century and the great scientific achievements on which the modern society has now become dependent, raise no question about its inclusion in today's school curriculum. In fact, science teaching has gained high priority in all the countries of the world. History of Science Teaching in India Now let us examine some of the efforts put into shaping science education for Indian Schools. Science as a separate subject, was included in school curriculum in the beginning of nineteenth century. It was then referred to as general science. After acquiring political independence in 1947 , Indian government set up the University Education Commission under the Chairmanship of Dr. Radha Krishnan in 1948. Though the Commission was to report primarily on university education, it made valuable suggestions for secondary education. The Commission recommended inclusion of General Science as a course of study in secondary schools. During 1947 - 52 the system of Basic Education, accepted as a national system of education visualized the General Science approach to teach science at elementary stage. MUDALIAR COMMISSION-1953. The first genuine attempt for making teaching of General Science as a compulsory subject in Seconary School was made in the recommendation of the report of Secondary Education Commission 1953 (Mudaliar Commission;). The Commission suggested compulsory inclusion of General Science at middle and secondary level. It also suggested diversification of courses having science group subjects as optional channels at higher secondary level. A thorough, discussion on all aspects of science education, viz., syllabus, equipment and materials. teaching aids, text books, science clubs, museums, and methods of examinations etc. was held at All India Seminar of Teaching of Science in Secondary Schools held at Tara Devi in 1956. It had suggested a uniform system of science education
- There should be flexibility in the curriculum in order to cater to the special needs of the gifted children. As a follow up of the report, a top level conference on Science Education was convened under the chairmanship of Dr. Kothari. It was held to plan an effective programme for the development of total curriculum of science education at different stages. The Ministry of Education and Social Welfare appointed an expert group in 1973 to develop curriculum for 10+2 pattern. The Curriculum for the Ten Year School-A Framework", published by NCERT was developed by the expert group under the chairmanship of Prof. Rais Ahmad. This model curricula, recommended the school science to be taught as 'Environmental Studies' at primary stage and as integrated Course' at middle stage. A review Committee was appointed in 1977 under the chairmanship of Shri Ishwar Bhai Patel. The Committee suggested the strengthening of abilities under affective domain through curriculum. The curriculum should not be too bookish. 10+2 system of school education recommended by Kothari Commission became the National System of Education. Science courses, as you will find, are always developed keeping objectives and national development goals in view. These courses are designed by NCERT at national level of various stages of school education. The new framework document of the Ten Year School, titled "National Curriculum for Primary and Secondary Education - A Framework' developed by NCERT is a for runner of the National Policy on Education-1986. NCERT develops its courses through various workshops and seminars in which academicians and experts from various institutions take part. Personnel like school teachers, subject experts from colleges and universities, teachers from vocational and professional institutions, teacher educators, state representatives and experts from NCERT itself lake part in curriculum construction. Experts review these curricula periodically and make it up-to-date. Summery History of Teaching Science in India Ø University education commission (1948) Ø Mudaliar commission (1953) Ø Tara Devi- 1956 Ø NCERT- 1961 Ø Indian Parliamentary & Scientific Committee Ø Kothari commission (1966) Ø Lower primary classes -------- Child’s environment Ø Upper primary level ---------- Acquisition of knowledge Ø Lower secondary level ------- physics, chemistry, biology etc Ø Linked to agriculture (rural) and technology (urban) Ø Flexible curriculum Ø 1973 ------- 10+2 pattern Ø Curriculum for the 10 year school– A Framework Ø 1977 --- Review committee Ø Ishwar Bhai Patel Ø No bookish Ø 10+2 National system of education
Introduction Physical Science is the concerted human effort to understand, or to understand better, the history of the natural world and how the natural world works with observable physical evidence as the basis of that understanding. It is done through observation of natural phenomena, and or through experimentation that tries to stimulate natural processes under controlled conditions. MEANING OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE A branch of science (a systematic enterprise that builds and organizes knowledge in the form of testable explanations and predictions about the universe.) Physical science is the study of matter and energy. That covers a lot of territory because matter refers to all the stuff that exists in the universe. It includes everything you can see and many things that you cannot see, including the air around you. Energy is also universal. It’s what gives matter the ability to move and change. Electricity, heat and light are some of the forms that energy can take. NATURE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE The nature and scope of physical science can very well be explained with the help of the following attributes. In other words, they constitute science and contribute greatly to its existence and new inventions. They are:
- Systematic and understandable
- Accuracy
- Validity
- Subject to change
- Durability
- Unable to provide complete answers to all the questions
- Mixture of logic and imagination SCOPE OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE
- Anything that is outside the boundaries of senses of human beings is outside the limits of science. In other words, the scope of physical science includes everything within the realm of the senses of human beings.
- Physical science deals with the natural world, the realm of nature, matter and energy.
- Physical science is not limited to only what is observable.
- Application
- Skill
- Interest
- Attitude
- Appreciation
- Training in scientific method
- Providing work for leisure
- Providing a basis for vocation The objective of teaching the Physical science are as:
- To develop the power of observation. Pupil at this stage are curious to know about all things, they come into contact with. It is therefore necessary to develop and train their power of observation.
- To make them know the relationship between physical and social environment. Students at this age group come into contact with the natural and social environment. They should be therefore trained to know about the relationship and the various benefits that are derived from nature.
- To develop good character It is necessary to develop certain qualities of character in the pupils of this age group and also to bring about the changes in their behaviour.
- To develop a habit of personal, family and society cleanliness
- To help them know the utility of science in life
- To develop scientific outlook
- To develop practical outlook
- To develop the skill of manipulation
NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF TEACHING PHYSICAL SCIENCE
Science is one of the human activities that man has created to gratify certain human needs and desires. The search of truth became the dominant motive in the prosecution of science. The teaching of science imparts training in the scientific method and develops scientific attitude which are very valuable and at the same time are transferable to other situations in life. The rapid advancement of science and technology and increasing need for scientist and technologies have made it all the more important to provide for science based education in the schools. Science has now become a compulsory subject in the school curriculum because of its multifarious value to the individuals as well as the society. VALUES OF TEACHING PHYSICAL SCIENCE o Intellectual Value Physical Science helps pupils to think of problem, and follow the method of inquiry. During the process they think at every stage. Science sharpens our intellect and lead us to critical observation and reasoning. o Utilitarian Value We are living in an age of science and technology. Physical Science has entered in our life and daily activities. All our activities are controlled and fashioned by it. There is a vast storehouse of natural power such as wind, waterfall, heat of the sun, etc. which science shows how it is useful for us. Science has revealed from nature almost all the hidden treasures. It restores eyes to the blind, hearing to the deaf, legs to the lame, even life to the dead. So it is very essential to have some elementary knowledge of science for becoming a full member in the society. o Vocational Value Knowledge of science forms the basis for many vocational studies like medicine, engineering, agriculture or any other profession. Further the study of science forms the basis for many hobbies like bee keeping, radio servicing, photography, etc. o Cultural Value Science has aided the growth of consciousness by making us more aware of the universe we live in. Through the practical application of scientific discovery our civilization is undergoing constant change which in turn brings about situations that threatens the well- being of the future generations. Scientists take an active part in the vital issues of the
2. Disciplinary Function The learning of science develops certain powers of clear and vigorous thinking of coherent and logical deduction, of exact and accurate observation - - a mental discipline characteristic of science. Habits of this kind acquired through science learning will automatically be generalised and transferred to wider concerns of natural life. These qualities are the outcomes of science (Joseph, 1982). Learning of science trains one in scientific method and develops scientific attitude consisting of traits such as open-mindedness, patience, accuracy, cleanliness, punctuality, etc. The mental power acquired by learning science will enable one to discipline oneself and thus help to be a useful member of the society. 3. Utilitarian Function This is the age of science and technology and the role of science in our daily affairs are innumerable. According to Sir Edward Salisbury, science today has come to play an increasingly important part in our everyday life and an appreciation of its significance, of its findings, of its major trends, of its proper use of appliances are essential to the welfare of individuals in the present and the human race in the future (cited in Nair, 1990). Science has attained a significant role in the different aspects of human life. There is a miraculous change in the ways and means of work and style of life. Science has revolutionised our way of living. It is now essential for everyone not only to understand science but also to manage day-to-day affairs. 4. Recreational Function Recreation of body and mind is one of the important aspects that need attention in modern life, which is full of tension and frustration. Learning of science can cater to the recreational needs of individuals especially during leisure hours. It develops interests, tastes and appreciations in pupils by offering a large number of opportunities such as hobbies, games and puzzles. Science provides through technology a number of recreational gadgets and facilities such as movies, television, computer, audio-video equipments and musical instruments, which are inevitable and of great recreational value in modern life. Science can create sensitiveness to the beauties of nature and an intellectual appreciation of the great discoveries and inventions of science.
5. Cultural Function According to the great Indian poet Dinkar, culture is the way of life, which is handed over to society from one generation to another in the form of accumulated customs, habits, and mode of living. The mode and style of living is different from one society to another and therefore their culture is not the same (cited in Mangal, 1990). Culture is the ‘way of life’ or ‘the finer things of life’ those we could cultivate through education. The learning of science develops in us a logical mind, a critical judgment, and a capacity for scientific organisation, which is essential for solving the problems in our life. The welfare of our society is dependent upon scientific progress and thus helps the formation of a culture of our own. 6. Vocational Function Science becomes the primary requirement for a number of vocations and vocational studies. To enter the field of medicine, engineering, agriculture, information technology, etc., the basic criterion is the interest and knowledge of science only. That is why science is considered as an inevitable part of our school curriculum. 7. Aesthetic Function Science offers a large number of opportunities for the development of refined tastes. Knowledge of science develops in man a passion for truth and beauty in nature. The duty of science is peeping into the mysteries of nature, which is the treasure house of all beautiful things. Thus, teaching of science is essential for developing sensitiveness to the beauty of nature and thereby develops an intellectual appreciation of great discoveries and inventions of science. The difference between a scientist and an artist is that artist aims more deliberately at beauty and a scientist attains and enjoys beauty through reasoning and truth. 8. Social Function Science is of great value to society from the very beginning. Science has helped a child to become a useful citizen. Today’s society stands on pillars of scientific techniques and knowledge. All our social activities depend upon science. Science has provided easy and effective means for transportation and communication, led to increased agricultural and industrial production, sophisticated medical and space research, etc. With these advancements, the society has progressively changed in all dimensions. Thus, science has been functioning as an instrument for social change.
the learner. These short term goals are known as objectives. Educational objectives are “explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by educative process” (Bloom, 1956). Recommendations of Taradevi Report and Kothari Commission objectives of teaching science at different levels. These objectives for different school age children are not of much practical value and are not reproduced here. Objectives describe intended outcomes as a result of properly chosen instructional activities. An objective is a level of mental growth which the learner is expected to reach through learning activities. The learner who has achieved these objectives will be different from the learner who has not. The realisation of an objective brings about certain changes in the behaviour of the pupil. For example, a pupil who has acquired knowledge will be able to recall those items of information and also to recognise them. Here, recall and recognition are two observable and measurable behaviour changes brought about in the pupil as a result of the attainment of the objective, knowledge. The objectives by themselves are not directly observable and measurable, but evidences of their attainment can be collected through specifications or learning outcomes. These observable and measurable behavioural changes are the specification of that objective. PRIMARY LEVEL Ø Arose love & maintain interest Ø Develop the habit of observation Ø Power of creative facilities MIDDLE SCHOOL LEVEL Ø Acquisition of knowledge Ø Logical think Ø Draw conclusion and make decisions HIGH & HIGHER SECONDARY LEVEL Ø Familiarize with world Ø Acquaint them with scientific method Ø Diversification of courses
