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Sociology
Unit B672 (Socialisation, Culture and
Identity) Revision
Sociology of Crime and Deviance
Part 1- Definitions of Crime and Deviance
Most of the time, most people follow the rules and norms of their society: that is, they conform. When they do not conform, sociologists can use different terms according to what they have done: Crime means the breaking of rules that have been made into laws by the rulers or government of the society. Different countries have different rules. Deviance means behaviour that most or all people disapprove of in the society. Such behaviour will not conform to the society's norms and values. Norms, you will remember are the unwritten rules for behaviour and are based on values which define what is thought of as good and right in society. When behaviour is serious and strongly disapproved, there will probably be a law against it. Different cultures have different norms and values, and so different ideas about what is deviant. Delinquency is a term to describe behaviour by young people that is disapproved of. Mostly it is deviant, but sometimes delinquents break laws as well, and so commit crime. Therefore, not all deviance is crime. Deviance applies to a very wide range of behaviour, and crime is a category within this of behaviour that is so strongly disapproved that there is a law against it. Is all crime deviant? Logically, it ought to be; but in fact it can be argued that there are some offences which may be crimes under the law, but where most people would not think of the offender as being a criminal or even as “deviant”. For example, it is against the law to park on double yellow lines, and a magistrate could fine a motorist who does this, but we would not think of the motorist as a criminal. There are several types of deviance: Historical deviance Deviance can only be defined in relation to particular norms, and norms change over time. For example, cigarette smoking used to be very popular and a socially acceptable activity, but is increasingly becoming branded as deviant, and smokers are now unwelcome in many places. Attitudes to Identify and explain two examples of a crime. [8]
abortion and homosexuality have also changed dramatically, and homosexuality is no longer seen as being as deviant as it once was. Fashion, of course, is an obvious example of changing norms-- people today would generally be regarded as deviant who are they to wear fashions of 17th century England. Cross cultural deviance If you travel abroad, you will quickly have to get used to the different norms that apply. In Japan, for example, the following would be normal, but might seem strange to you: eating with chopsticks bowing sitting on the floor wearing a mask over your mouth when you have a cough or cold not wearing shoes when indoors Situational deviance However, because you are recognised as a foreigner, it may be acceptable for you not to do all the things Japanese people do. So whether an act is seen as deviant or not can depend on who is doing it, as well as in what situation. These examples demonstrate that whether an act is deviant or not depends not so much of the act as on the social situation in which it happens. Deviance is socially defined Crime is also socially defined. What is legal in one country may be illegal in another. Drinking alcohol is socially acceptable (even approved in some situations) in Britain today for adults, but is illegal in Saudi Arabia and other Islamic countries, and was illegal in the USA during Prohibition. Laws constantly change. Older laws may be dropped if they seem irrelevant, while new laws are introduced to cope with new problems or situations. Although deviance is usually relative to the culture, situation and timeframe you are in, there have been attempts to standardise moral codes through the legal system. For example, all people in Britain are subject to the same laws, which define what is acceptable and unacceptable behaviour across the country. There have also been attempts to define deviance and making it illegal across different cultures, for example through European law and United Nations rulings. By requiring that such moral codes become law in member countries, they become more universal. Identify and explain two types of deviance. [8] Identify and explain two examples of situational deviance. [8] Identify and explain two examples of historical deviance. [8]
Part 2- Controlling Crime and Deviance
Crime, deviance and delinquency are punished by sanctions. These vary enormously. For crime, the sanctions can range from fine to prison sentences to (though not in Britain today) death. For deviance, the sanctions are likely to be of much lower order. If someone pushes ahead of you in a queue, you may “tut”, or make a comment, to let the person know you disapprove. In a classroom, when a pupil is misbehaving, a teacher might simply catch the individual’s eye, or say his or her name -- or send him or her out. Although we normally think of deviance as something negative, sometimes people do things which are heroic or generous that very few of us would do -- someone who gives all his or her money to charity, or someone who risks his or her own life to rescue others. These are deviant too, because they are not expected. They may be rewarded rather than sanctions. Some deviance may be tolerated, rather than rewarded or sanction. We often call this eccentricity; people with a reputation for being eccentric are often allowed to do things that others would not get away with. Social control Social control refers to the ways in which society tries to ensure that its members conform to laws, rules and norms; that is, to make sure that they do not commit acts of crime and deviance. The forms social control take can be divided into the formal and the informal. For more social control means the creation of laws and rules and using them to control people's behaviour. The agencies of formal social control include the government, the police, judges and the courts and prisons. Informal social control means how we are persuaded to conform most of the time through being taught and reminded about what is acceptable and what is not. The agencies of informal social control are also the agencies of socialisation. They include: the family — members of your family, particularly your parents, are very effective at discouraging you from what they see as “deviant” behaviour. This is especially true when it comes to promoting or forbidding gender specific behaviour- parents manipulate their children into behaving appropriately (eg it may be Identify and explain two informal sanctions. [8] Identify and explain two positive sanctions. [8]
acceptable for a boy to do things a girl would not be permitted to do). the education system — teachers employ many informal sanctions to discourage certain behaviour. This can range from a “look” to a more formal punishment such as a detention for not completing work. The Hidden curriculum can also be employed by teachers to encourage or discourage certain behaviour from girls and boys. peer groups — we all have a need to “ fit in ” with others and join a “ cultural comfort zone .” The peer group is very effective in discouraging inappropriate behaviour as those members of the group who do not conform are ostracized from the group. the workplace — certain standards of behaviour are expected from certain occupations. The work place provides formal sanctions to those who do not conform to this behaviour. the mass media — the media presents images, perhaps in the form of stereotypes, of how individuals and groups are expected to behave. The media informally sanctions deviance by broadcasting acceptable and unacceptable standards. religion —this is a very powerful form of social control to people who believe. In the past religions provided formal systems of control as you could be sent to prison for disobeying religious laws. Nowadays, religious controls are less formal and have an effect only on the religious (the threat of being sent to hell is still a powerful motivator for good behaviour for many!) By teaching what behaviour is not acceptable, and what the sanctions will be, they are agents of social control. Informal social control works so well that most people behave in an acceptable way most of the time. When informal social control doesn't work, for more social control takes over and deals with the offenders. Agencies of formal social control The legislature This term refers to the branch of government that is responsible for legislating, that is, for making laws. In Britain this is the House of Commons and the House of Lords , which together make up the houses of parliament. In order for a new law to be created, a bill (the term given to a proposal, a law before it becomes law) is brought before Parliament. It Is then debated by Members of Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons, and by members of the House of Lords. The bill may be amended if the house votes for this. After both houses have passed the bill, it is signed by the moderate and becomes an Act of Parliament and has the force of law. Many Acts of Parliament do not affect the issues of crime and deviance; they include, for example, decisions about how to spend money and changes to Identify and explain two informal agents of social control. [8]
writing reports and carrying out administrative work as to be on patrol. Traffic patrols and dealing with accidents also take up a lot of time. The recent small fall in the crime rate has not meant less work for the police. While recorded crime goes down, more incidents are reported. This may be because mobile telephones make it much easier to call the police; several people now usually report road accidents. There are however, more police to cope with the extra work; the combined police forces of England and Wales now number nearly 100,000. Most people say they would like to see more police officers on the street, deterring crime by being seen to be around. One of the concerns expressed during the trial in April 2000 of Tony Martin for shooting two burglars on his Norfolk farm was that the police were always too far away to be useful. Some people felt they needed to be able to protect themselves, because in a rural area it would be a long time before the police arrived. The judiciary This refers to the courts, which try those accused of crimes and convict and sentence those who are found guilty. Most serious cases are dealt with by Crown Court , with a judge and jury. Minor offences are dealt with by Magistrates Courts , which are presided over by a magistrate. The courts have a variety of sanctions (or sentences) available to them when someone is found guilty of breaking the law -- Absolute discharge -- the person is guilty but no action is taken against him or her. Conditional discharg -- no action is taken, but if the person commits another offence he or she will be sentenced for both the new crime and the first one. Fine -- the offender has to pay a sum of money. A fine is the punishment for about three quarters of all those found guilty. Probation order -- an offender who is on probation is supervised by a probation officer for between six months and three years. This means the offender is being checked up on regularly, and also that he or she gets help to stop him or her offending again. (An ASBO comes under this heading). Community service order -- the offender has to do work which is helpful to the community without being paid. Sentences are for between 40 and 240 hours. Combination order -- this is a combination of probation and community service. Prison -- this is reserved for the most serious offences. “If there were more police there would be less crime.” Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24] Identify and explain two punishments imposed by the courts. [8]
The penal system This refers to the people and organisations that deal with offenders. These include prisons and probation service. Their role is to deal with people who have been found guilty of offences. The penal system has several purposes: To punish individuals who have been found guilty and provide retribution for the victims of crime. To rehabilitate offenders, to try to ensure that they will not commit further crimes. To achieve this, prisons may offer training and education, teaching skills so that offenders will have a chance to get a job and “go straight.” To deter -- the punishment acts as a warning to others of what they can expect if they break the law. The media play a part in this by reporting what sentences offenders have been given. To protect members of the public from potentially dangerous individuals. Recently there has been much debate about whether or not the penal system is effective in achieving these aims. The debate has particularly focused on the prison system and whether or not prisons rehabilitate, deter, protect or even effectively punish offenders. The fact that 70% of prisoners reoffend and sent back to prison may suggest that the prison system lacks effectiveness. However, it is difficult to think of another form of punishment which would be more or as effective given the fact that the death penalty is outlawed in many countries around the world (the USA is an obvious exception). A summary of the arguments for and against the effectiveness of prisons can be seen in the table below: Identify and explain two aims of punishment/ prisons. [8] “Criminals should always be sent to prison.” Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24]
Prisoners used to be badly treated, for example by being beaten. This is no longer the case in Britain today. Prison is, however, a major punishment. Prisoners: lose their freedom have no proper income not allow the company of their families and friends (except at set visiting times) not allowed sexual relationships cannot wear their own clothing cannot use their own personal items are often in overcrowded and unpleasant conditions are told what to do most of the time. There are different types of prison. Prisoners are sent to different prisons depending on how serious their offences were and whether they are likely to be a danger to others. Open prisons allow prisoners considerably more freedom than maximum security prisons. In Britain 125 out of every 100,000 people are in prison. This is a very low rate compared to Russia and the USA, but is the second highest in Western Europe. British courts are more likely to give prison sentences, and to give long prison sentences. In recent years there have not been enough places in prison for the number of people receiving prison sentences. Prisoners have to learn how to live in prison. They have to go through a form of secondary socialisation, learning not just the prison rules but also the norms of prison life. Prison is so different from the world outside that many prisoners find it very difficult to adjust when they are eventually released. These problems may make it more likely that they will reoffend (approximately 70% of prisoners reoffend and need to be sent back to prison). “Prisons are not effective.” Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24]
Part 3- Patterns of Crime
The crime rate The crime rate rose steadily from the 1950s, when there were less than half a million crimes recorded each year, to a peak of 5.6 million in 1992. Since then the crime rate has fallen slightly. However, the trend is different for different types of crime. The Home Office also publishes statistics about people who have been convicted of offences. From this, we know that the majority of convicted criminals are young men of working-class backgrounds, and that black men are over represented compared to their numbers in the population. Questioning the figures The crime figures do not give us the full picture of crime. They are a count only of the number of crimes recorded by the police. How many other crimes are there? And what kind of person commits those crimes? In order for a crime to reach the official statistics and be recorded, two things have to happen: the crime has to be reported to the police. This doesn't always happen, and there are many reasons why a crime might not be reported: the victims and/or witnesses may be too frightened of the consequences. they may feel the police will not or cannot do anything. If it is a theft of an uninsured item, they may feel there is no point in reporting it because there is no chance of getting it back. they may not want to get the offender into trouble- it may even be a member of their family. the police have to record the incident as a crime. There may not be enough evidence to do this (for example the wallet reported stolen white have been lost) or the police may decide not to proceed further. The police influence the figures in other ways. Police forces do not always record crime in the same way. If several houses close together are broken into at the same time, this may be recorded as one crime or as several. Some forces do not record thefts of goods below a certain value, but the set value varies. The police have considerable discretion over how they categorise incidents (for example whether an attack is an assault with intent to rob or just assault). The police also have priorities that lead to the uncovering of some crimes book may help conceal others; they concentrate their resources on places where they think trouble is likely, such as inner-city areas and “problem” it states rather than suburbs. Identify and explain two reasons why crime is not reported to the police. [8]
Why do women commit less crime? Socialisation. Boys and girls are socialised differently. Girls are expected to be more passive, while boys are encouraged to be more active and also to be tough and be able to fight when necessary. These differences may make it more likely that boys will get into trouble with the police later. Opportunity. Females often have less opportunity to commit crime than men. As children and teenagers, girls are usually more closely supervised; parents will want to know where they are, what they are doing and when they will be home. Boys are often given (or take) more freedom. Later, women are usually responsible for looking after children. This also restricts opportunities for crime. Do the statistics underestimate female crime? The statistics only record crimes reported to the police and recorded as crimes. It may be that the types of crime women to commit are less likely to be reported; perhaps women are better at concealing the evidence. Self-report studies with teenagers do tend to show that the gap between boys and girls offending is much smaller than the official statistics suggest. However, such studies are usually about delinquency rather than specifically criminal behaviour, and it is never certain whether respondents are being truthful. Are women committing more crimes than in the past? The number of offences by women has been rising faster than the rise in crimes in general. It seems that women are committing more offences that used to be the case. Explanations for this can be developed from the reasons given above for women's lower rates of crime: Changing socialisation -- the socialisation of girls today includes the importance of being assertive and resourceful, rather than always relying on a male. The media have played a part in this, for example through role models such as the Spice Girls. Greater opportunity -- women now have similar opportunities than men, including opportunities to commit crime. They go out to work more, and go out more at night. Women in the criminal justice system There are over 2000 women in prison in Britain, a big increase over the last 20 years. The vast majority are in prison for non-violent offences, often for not paying fines so that they had money to look after their children. Identify and explain two reasons women commit less crime than men. [8]
Our women treated more leniently by the police and courts? The idea that they do has been called the chivalry factor, taking up the idea, strong in the past in British culture, that men should protect women. The suggestion is that the police are more likely to caution rather than charge women, and that the courts are likely to impose lighter sentences, particularly if the woman has or is expecting children (it is not usually considered relevant if a man on trial has children). An alternative theory says that, for some offences, women are actually treated more harshly. This happens when the offence involves neglect or abuse of children. Because we see caring for children as a woman's natural role, it seems unnatural and outrageous when this does not happen. Women as victims There are crimes of which women are much more likely than men to be victims. These include rape, sexual assault and domestic violence. These are all offences that are believed to be seriously underestimated in official statistics because the victims do not always report them. Feminists and others have argued that the criminal justice system has not taken these offences seriously enough in the past. The police and courts have treated insensitively women who have been raped. In court women have been questioned about their sex lives and even being cross-examined by the rapist. Women are afraid of being victims of these crimes, and this can affect their lives. For example, they may avoid going out especially alone, at night or to certain areas. While these are sensible precautions, most assaults and rapes are not by strangers but by people the victim already knows. Age and crime: juvenile delinquents Are the statistics accurate? Self-report studies and other research tend to confirm that young people commit a loss of offences, though usually fairly minor ones. However, there some reasons for doubting that this is the whole picture: “Women are less likely to commit crimes than men.” Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24]
Peer groups and subcultures Peer groups are particularly important for teenagers. Peer groups may encourage delinquent behaviour. Sometimes the peer group they have clear norms and values that indicate the existence of a subculture. The sociologist Albert Cohen suggested that delinquency was caused by the “status frustration” boys who were failing at school found. They needed the approval of others and a feeling of success, but could not get this at school where they were labelled as failures. Their reaction was to turn the schools they use upside down. They subculture was based on rudeness, disobedience and breaking the rules. They could win status in the eyes of their peers by breaking the rules, and at the same time get some revenge. While Cohen argued that there were delinquent subcultures, others do not think that delinquents have different values to everyone else. The values that get people into trouble -- such as being tough, or a taste for risk and adventure -- are widespread, at least among boys and men. There are perfectly legal ways to express these values -- sport and outdoor activities, for example. Where delinquents are different is that they express these values in the wrong way, at the wrong time. The sociologist David Matza suggested that everyone has two sets of values: Conventional values, which most people keep to most of the time subterranean values, such as aggression, greed and sexuality. Everyone shares the subterranean values, but we can only express them at certain times and in certain places. Delinquency of people who follow subterranean values in the wrong places and the wrong times. They “drift” into trouble-- and usually out again. Social control It has been argued that social control is weaker over teenagers than other age groups. Adults usually have responsibilities that limit the scope they have two commit crime. They have to look after children and have to pay for a house, a car and so on. Teenagers are not tied down in these ways; they do not usually have two earn a living or support and care for others. What can be done about delinquency? In a sense, juvenile delinquency sorts itself out -- young people grow up. But this may not be until after they have done considerable damage, both to themselves, by messing up their education and even getting a criminal record, and to the victims of their antisocial behaviour. Identify and explain two reasons why young people might join a subculture. [8]
As well is the measures taken against crime in general, the government has been looking at new measures: Curfews -- young children not to be out without an adult after a set time. Parental responsibility -- encouraging parents to intervene more to try to prevent delinquency. Part of this may be to make parents pay compensation to victims of their children's crimes. Providing activities to keep young people occupied such as after- school clubs. Reducing exclusions from school -- on the grounds that being allowed to stay on and allow someone to move away from trouble by being able to study and perhaps get qualifications. Minority ethnic groups and crime Afro-Caribbean people and crime Afro-Caribbean people are about seven times as likely as white and Asian people to be in prison. There are two possible explanations for this: that Afro-Caribbean people do commit substantially more crime that the criminal justice system is racist and works against them, for example by giving harsher sentences. In fact, these two explanations can both be true; if Afro-Caribbean people do commit more crime this can be in response to an unjust, racist system. Afro-Caribbean people tend to live in inner city areas where opportunities are limited. They do not do as well at school on average as white children, and suffer high rates of unemployment, partly as a result of discrimination. Crime then may be a way of surviving in difficult circumstances. The relationship between Afro- Caribbean people and the police has been a source of concern for many years. The police have tended to accept the evidence of the official statistics, that black people are more likely to be involved in crime. They Identify and explain two ways delinquency might be controlled. [8]
In 1999 the Joseph Rowntree Foundation found that harassment is part of daily life for many black and Asian people, and that the authorities are reluctant to take it seriously. Victims (often women) described how they had to accept daily abuse, and find ways to cope, such as keeping children indoors and never going out alone. The constant abuse has serious effects on mental and physical health. In 99 seven a report by human rights watch said that Britain had one of the highest rates of racially motivated crime in Europe; it estimated 32, 500 assaults and 26,000 acts of vandalism a year. The report documented 14 racist murders between 1991 and 1994 (including that of Stephen Lawrence) as well as severe beatings and people forced to leave their homes. The report also expressed shock at the number of incidents of police brutality, including unlawful killings, against members of minorities. The Stephen Lawrence case In April 1993 a black teenager, Stephen Lawrence, was stabbed to death at a bus stop in London by a gang of white youths who were heard to use racist abuse. Despite there being many witnesses, some of whom gave them names, the police failed to investigate the murder folly. Because of the persistence of his parents, who refused to give up, the case became a national scandal, especially where the identities of the killers became known and they could not be prosecuted. The eventual inquiry found the police had mishandled the case, and describe the Metropolitan Police as institutionally racist. It recommended urgent measures to increase the number of police from minorities and to improve awareness of race issues. Social class and crime It seems that there is a strong link between a person's position in the social class hierarchy and their likelihood of committing a crime. In simple terms, the lower their class position, the higher their criminality. Indeed, working-class young people have the crime rate that is about eight times higher than that of upper or middle class youth. When you look at the prison population, it is a similar story, with working-class people being hugely overrepresented. Crime rates in inner city areas and council estates are also typically higher than in moral areas or the suburbs. These areas, of course, are largely working- class. However, many sociologists believe that (in comparison to the crime rates of ethnic minority groups) the crime rates in relation to class say more about the structure of society rather than the reality of the situation “Members of ethnic minorities are more likely to commit crime.” Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24] “Working class youth are more likely to commit crime.” Evaluate the arguments for and against this claim. [24]
Part 4- Explanations of Crime and Deviance
Socialisation, home and family Socialisation is the process by which we learn to conform to society's norms. One explanation for crime and deviance is that they happen as a result of socialisation going in some way. For example, it has been suggested that for boys in lone parent families, not having a father around as a role model can lead to antisocial behaviour. The boys, it is said, do not learn to channel their energy into supporting a family. Longitudinal research has tried to follow what happens to individuals over a long period of time, to see if there was a link between what happens in childhood and what happens later in life. For example, older child who is hyperactive or cruel to animals be more likely to be criminal in later life? One suggestion has been that some children develop antisocial behaviour very young, reasons such as poor parenting. a troubled family life with arguments, violence and alcohol and drug abuse their own low reasoning ability. (“It is clear that problem children tend to grow up into problem adults, and that problem adults tend to produce more problem children.” Farrington in Oxford Handbook of Criminology ). Peer groups and subcultures Another agency of socialisation is the peer group. The explanation here is that the peer group may have norms and values that approve of and encourage delinquent or criminal behaviour. These may take over from the norms and values learned in primary socialisation. For example, the teenager may join a gang that is involved in delinquency. If the gang has a well developed set of norms and values which are clearly different from the norms and values of the rest of society, we can call it a subculture.
