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MODULE 2: Social Perception
and Cognition
Spotlights and Illusions
From our self-focused perspective, we overestimate our conspicuousness. This spotlight effect means that we tend to see ourselves at center stage, so we intuitively overestimate the extent to which others’ attention is aimed at us. Keenly aware of our own emotions, we often suffer an illusion of transparency. If we’re happy and we know it, then our face will surely show it. And others, we presume, will notice.
Examples:
- The spotlight effect: People tend to believe that others are paying more attention to them than they actually are. They overestimate the extent to which their actions, appearance, or behavior are noticed by others.
- Illusion of transparency : Individuals tend to overestimate how well others can discern their internal thoughts and emotions. They mistakenly believe that their internal states are more apparent to others than they actually are.
- Social surroundings and self-awareness : When individuals find themselves in a group where they are the only member of a particular race, gender, or nationality, they become more aware of their differences and how others react to those differences.
- Self-interest and social judgment : In close relationships, such as marriages, individuals tend to attribute more responsibility to their partners when problems arise, rather than accepting their own share of responsibility. Conversely, when things go well, individuals see themselves as more responsible for the positive outcomes.
- Self-concern and social behavior: Individuals often focus on making a positive impression on others, which leads to self-consciousness about their appearance and behavior. They also observe and adjust their behavior based on the expectations and actions of others, similar to how politicians adapt their strategies to gain public approval.
- Social relationships and self-definition : Different social relationships contribute to the development of varying selves. Depending on the context
and the person they are interacting with, individuals may exhibit different aspects of their personality, adapting their self-presentation accordingly. For example, the way one behaves with their mother may differ from how they behave with friends or teachers.
Perceiving Ourselves
Self Concept (who am I?) The most important aspect of yourself is your self. You know who you are, your gender, whose feelings and memories you experience. To discover where this sense of self arises, neuroscientists are exploring the brain activity that underlies our constant sense of being oneself. Some studies suggest an important role for the right hemisphere. Put yours to sleep (with an anesthetic to your right carotid artery) and you likely will have trouble recognizing your own face. One patient with right hemisphere damage failed to recognize that he owned and was controlling his left hand. The “medial prefrontal cortex,” a neuron path located in the cleft between your brain hemispheres just behind your eyes, seemingly helps stitch together your sense of self. It becomes more active when you think about yourself. The elements of your self-concept, the specific beliefs by which you define yourself, are your self-schemas. ( Schemas are mental templates by which we organize our worlds. Our self -schemas our perceiving ourselves as athletic, overweight, smart, or whatever- powerfully affect how we perceive, remember, and evaluate other people and ourselves. ) Possible Selves: Our self-concepts include not only our self-schemas about who we currently are but also who we might become—our possible selves.
change our attitudes to align with our behavior, thereby integrating the role into our self-concept. This integration of role playing into our self-concept highlights the dynamic nature of the self. Our self-identity is not fixed but evolves through our experiences and interactions with different roles and social contexts.
💡 Note: Understanding the process by which role playing becomes reality provides insights into the malleability of the self and how our behaviors and experiences shape our self-concept. Further exploration in this area can shed light on the complexities of self- identity formation and the impact of social roles on our beliefs and attitudes.
- the social identities we form:
The social groups to which we belong contribute to our self-concept. Our identification with particular social categories (e.g., nationality, gender, ethnicity) influences how we define ourselves and how we perceive others.
- the comparisons we make with others/ social comparisons:
Social comparisons help us determine how we perceive ourselves in relation to others. By comparing ourselves to those around us, we establish standards for evaluating our own attributes or characteristics, such as wealth, intelligence, or height. Our self-concept is influenced by the social comparisons we make. We assess how we differ from others and use those differences as a basis for defining ourselves in various domains. The context of social comparisons matters. For example, students attending a high school with mostly average students are more likely to have a higher academic self-concept compared to students in a high- achieving school. This is because their comparisons with others are more favorable, leading to a more positive self-perception. However, transitioning to a more academically selective university after excelling in an average high school can pose a threat to one's self-concept. The student who was once a "big fish" in a small pond now finds themselves among highly accomplished peers, potentially challenging their previous self-perception and confidence.
Social comparison theory, proposed by Festinger in 1954, explains the psychological processes involved in social comparisons and their impact on self-evaluation and self-concept.
💡 Note: Understanding the role of social comparisons in shaping our self-concept provides insights into how our evaluations of ourselves are influenced by the people and contexts around us. Further research in this area can explore the mechanisms and consequences of social comparisons on various aspects of self-perception and well- being.
- our successes and failures:
Our self-concept is influenced by our daily experiences. The tasks we undertake and our ability to succeed in them contribute to how we perceive ourselves. Successfully completing challenging yet realistic tasks enhances our sense of competence. When individuals accomplish tasks that require skill and effort, they feel more capable and competent in that particular domain. Mastery of physical skills can impact feelings of vulnerability and control. For example, women who learn and master self-defense skills may experience reduced feelings of vulnerability and anxiety related to sexual assault. This sense of empowerment contributes to their self-concept. Academic success influences beliefs about competence in school. When students experience achievements in academics, they develop a stronger belief in their abilities and competence in the academic domain. This belief often motivates them to work harder and strive for further success. Feeling confident and empowered is associated with doing one's best and achieving. Accomplishing tasks and achieving desired outcomes contribute to an increased sense of confidence and empowerment in various aspects of life.
💡 Note: The perceptions and evaluations of others play a significant role in shaping our self-concepts. Positive feedback and labels can enhance our self-perception, while negative stereotypes and low expectations can lead to disidentification or redirection of interests. Understanding the influence of social perceptions on self-concept provides insights into the dynamics of social influence and its impact on individuals' self-perception and behavior. Further research can delve into the complexities of social evaluations and their implications for self-identity.
- the surrounding culture: The cultural context in which we live impacts our self-concept. Cultural values, norms, and beliefs shape how we define ourselves and influence our self- identity.
💡 Note: The self-concept is shaped by a combination of genetic, social, and cultural factors. Understanding these determinants provides insights into the multifaceted nature of self-perception and its impact on social behavior. Further research can delve into the complexities of these influences and their interactions.
Self and Culture
For some people, especially those in industrialized Western cultures, individualism prevails. Identity is self-contained. Adolescence is a time of separating from parents, becoming self-reliant, and defining one’s personal, independent self. One’s identity—as a unique individual with particular abilities, traits, values, and dreams— remains fairly constant.
Individualism : The concept of giving priority to one’s own goals over group goals and defining one’s identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications.
Most cultures native to Asia, Africa, and Central and South America place a greater value on collectivism. They nurture what Shinobu Kitayama and Hazel Markus (1995) call the interdependent self. In these cultures, people are more self-critical and have less need for positive self-regard.
Collectivism: Giving priority to the goals of one’s groups (often one’s extended family or work group) and defining one’s identity accordingly.
- Individualism: Individualism refers to giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity based on personal attributes rather than group identifications. This concept is prevalent in many industrialized Western cultures, where individual achievements and personal autonomy are highly valued.
- Individualism in Western Cultures: In industrialized Western cultures, individualism is predominant, and personal identity is self-contained. Adolescence is a developmental stage characterized by separating from parents, becoming self-reliant, and forming an independent self-concept. Personal identity is viewed as unique, with specific abilities, traits, values, and dreams that remain relatively constant.
- Collectivism in Native Cultures: Many cultures in Asia, Africa, and Central and South America place a greater emphasis on collectivism. These cultures nurture what Shinobu Kitayama and Hazel Markus called the interdependent self, where individuals perceive themselves as interconnected with others. People in collectivist cultures tend to be more self-critical and have a reduced need for positive self-regard, as their identities are tied to the goals and well-being of their groups (extended family, work group, etc.).
- Variation within Cultures: It is i mportant to avoid oversimplifying cultures as solely individualist or collectivist, as individualism varies from person to person within any culture. There are individuals in collectivist cultures who demonstrate individualistic behaviors, and vice versa. People may exhibit communal or individualistic behaviors depending on the context, emphasizing the fluid nature of cultural orientations (Bandura, 2004).
In the United States, younger generations report significantly more positive self- feelings than young people did in the 1960s and 1970s.
- Evolution of Cultures: Cultures are not static and can undergo changes over time. Many cultures are experiencing a shift towards greater individualism. Examples of this trend include the emergence of "The Me Generation" in China and the challenging of traditional collectivistic values in India due to new economic opportunities.
- Changing Perspectives in China: In China, the younger generation has been labeled "The Me Generation." Economic opportunities and exposure to global influences have contributed to the adoption of more individualistic values among Chinese youth. Surveys indicate that Chinese citizens under the age of 25 are more likely to agree with individualistic statements like "make a name for yourself" and "live a life that suits your tastes" (Arora, 2005).
- Shifting Self-Perceptions in the United States: In the United States, younger generations exhibit more positive self- feelings compared to young people in the 1960s and 1970s. This shift suggests a growing emphasis on individual well-being and self-esteem among younger Americans. Factors contributing to this change may include cultural shifts, societal changes, and increased focus on self-expression and personal achievement.
- Dynamic Nature of Cultural Trends: The changes in cultural values and attitudes are indicative of the dynamic nature of cultures. Cultural shifts can be influenced by various factors, including globalization, technological advancements, economic development, and generational differences. It is important to recognize that cultural change is an ongoing process, and individualism and collectivism may continue to evolve in different
societies.
Culture and Cognition
Social psychologist Richard Nisbett contends that collectivism also results in different ways of thinking.
- Cultural Influence on Thinking: Social psychologist Richard Nisbett suggests that collectivism influences different ways of thinking. One example is the perception of relationships between objects. Asians tend to focus more on relationships, seeing connections between objects, whereas Americans focus more on individual objects. Studies have shown that when presented with visual stimuli, such as an animated underwater scene, Japanese participants recalled more background features and spoke of more relationships compared to American participants.
- Cultural Influence on Self-Expression: Western cultures, including the United States, often emphasize individual expression and self-assertion. Individuals are encouraged to "express themselves" and prioritize personal goals and aspirations. In contrast, cultures with an interdependent self-concept emphasize belongingness and maintaining social connections. The sense of self is shaped by relationships with family, colleagues, and friends, resulting in multiple selves depending on the social context.
- Interdependent Self and Social Memberships: The interdependent self is deeply embedded in social memberships and group affiliations. Communication styles in interdependent cultures are often indirect and polite, focusing on gaining social approval and avoiding conflict. The primary goal of social life in collectivist societies is to harmonize with and support the community, rather than enhancing individual self-interest.
- Importance of Social Connections: For individuals with an interdependent self-concept, social connections are crucial to their sense of identity.
Culture and Self-Esteem
Self-esteem in collectivist cultures correlates closely with “what others think of me and my group.” Self-concept is malleable (context-specific) rather than stable (enduring across situations). Example: In a study, four in five Canadian students but only one in three Chinese and Japanese students agreed that “the beliefs that you hold about who you are (your inner self) remain the same across different activity domains”. For those in individualistic cultures, self-esteem is more personal and less relational. Threaten our personal identity and we’ll feel angrier and gloomier than when someone threatens our collective identity. Unlike Japanese, who persist more on tasks when they are failing (wanting not to fall short of others’ expectations), people in individualistic countries persist more when succeeding, because success elevates self-esteem. Western individualists like to make comparisons with others that boost their self-esteem. Asian collectivists make comparisons (often upward, with those doing better) in ways that facilitate self-improvement.
Self- Knowledge
- Explaining Our Behavior:
Self-knowledge involves understanding and explaining our own behavior. We often rely on internal attributions, such as personality traits or personal characteristics, to explain our behavior. However, external attributions, such as situational factors, also play a significant role in influencing our behavior.
- Predicting Our Behavior:
Self-knowledge helps us predict our future behavior based on our past actions and experiences. However, predicting our behavior accurately can be challenging due to the influence of situational factors and the dynamic nature of human behavior.
- Predicting Our Feelings:
Self-knowledge also extends to predicting our own emotional responses in different situations. We often rely on our past experiences and knowledge of ourselves to anticipate how we will feel in certain circumstances. However, our ability to predict our emotions accurately is influenced by factors such as emotional complexity and the unpredictability of external events.
- The Wisdom of Self-Analysis:
Engaging in self-analysis can provide valuable insights into our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
Each individual may have different.
- Variability in Contingencies:
Contingencies of self-esteem can vary between individuals. One person's self-esteem may be highly contingent on academic performance and physical attractiveness, while another person's self- esteem may be contingent on religious faith and adherence to moral values. The specific contingencies can shape how individuals evaluate themselves and determine their overall self-worth.
- Importance of Contingencies:
The domains that are important to our self-esteem can significantly influence our self-perception and emotional well-being. When we succeed or meet the standards in these domains, it can enhance our self-esteem and contribute to positive self-evaluation. On the other hand, experiencing failure or setbacks in these domains may lead to a decrease in self-esteem and negative self-perception.
- I ndividual Differences:
Contingencies of self-esteem can vary across individuals and cultures. Cultural values, societal expectations, and personal experiences shape the contingencies that individuals prioritize in their self-evaluations. It is important to recognize and respect the diversity of contingencies and understand that different individuals may derive self-esteem from different sources.
Self- Esteem Motivation
Abraham Tesser (1988) reported that a “self-esteem maintenance” motive predicts a variety of interesting findings, even friction among brothers and sisters. Tesser presumes that people’s perceiving one of you as more capable than the other will motivate the less able one to act in ways that maintain self- esteem.
- Self-Esteem Maintenance: According to Abraham Tesser's research, individuals have a motive for self- esteem maintenance, which influences their behavior and interactions.
This motive is driven by the desire to protect and enhance one's self-esteem by engaging in activities that uphold a positive self-perception.
- Sibling Comparisons:
Growing up with a sibling of the same gender and similar age often leads to comparisons between the two individuals. Tesser suggests that perceiving one sibling as more capable than the other can create a motivation for the less capable sibling to engage in behaviors that maintain their self-esteem. Siblings who perceive themselves as less capable may strive to excel in other areas or find ways to validate their self-worth independently.
- Friction Among Brothers:
Tesser's findings indicate that brothers with marked differences in abilities tend to have more conflicts or tension between them. In contrast, brothers who have similar abilities are more likely to recall minimal friction in their relationship. The self-esteem maintenance motive can influence the dynamics of sibling relationships, particularly when one feels threatened or inferior to the other.
- Self-Esteem Threats in Friendships:
The motive for self-esteem maintenance extends to friendships as well. Success or accomplishments of friends can be perceived as threats to one's own self-esteem, especially when there is a sense of competition or comparison. People may experience feelings of jealousy, inadequacy, or self-doubt when a friend outperforms them in domains that are important to their self-identity.
- Self-Esteem and Romantic Relationships:
In romantic relationships, shared interests can be beneficial for the couple's connection and compatibility. However, if both partners have identical career goals or aspirations, it can lead to tension or jealousy. When one partner surpasses the other in an area that holds significance to both of their identities, the threatened partner may try to reduce the self- esteem threat by affirming the relationship and emphasizing the importance of their bond.
- Relationship Problems: Narcissists may initially come across as outgoing and charming, but their self-centeredness often leads to difficulties in maintaining healthy and fulfilling relationships. Their constant need for attention and admiration can strain interpersonal connections, as they may disregard the feelings and needs of others.
- Narcissism in "The Dark Triad": Narcissism is considered one of the negative traits in "The Dark Triad," which includes two other traits: Machiavellianism (manipulativeness) and antisocial psychopathy. The Dark Triad traits share a common theme of self-centeredness, manipulation, and a disregard for the well-being of others.
- Problematic Social Relations: The association between narcissism and problematic social relations has been extensively studied by researchers like Delroy Paulhus and Kevin Williams. The self-centered nature of narcissists often creates conflicts and difficulties in maintaining healthy and meaningful connections with others.
Self- Presentation
Self-Presentation : The act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one’s ideals. Self-Presentation Tactics: People employ various self-presentation tactics to shape others' impressions of them. Self-promotion involves emphasizing favorable self-aspects, such as intelligence or fun qualities, to influence others' perceptions. This tactic can also influence individuals' own self-perception. Self-verification perspective: the processes we use to lead others to agree with our own self-views suggests that negotiation occurs with others to ensure they agree with our self-claims (Swann, 2005). The self-verification perspective suggests that individuals engage in negotiation with others to gain agreement and support for their self-views. This can involve emphasizing certain self-aspects while downplaying others to align with one's most central self-perception.
For example, while trading self-relevant information with a potential roommate, you might stress the student part of your self-concept emphasize your good study habits and pride in your good grades and underplay your fun qualities. This potential roommate might even note that “You don’t sound like you’re very interested in having fun here at college.” To gain that person’s agreement with your most central self-perception serious student you may even be willing to entertain a negative assessment of your fun quotient, as long as the other person is willing to go along with your self-assessment of the dimension most critical to you. Ingratiation Tactics: Ingratiation tactics involve making others like us by praising them or being self-deprecating. Praise can effectively create a positive impression, while excessive flattery may be perceived as insincere. Self- deprecating remarks can be used to communicate admiration or lower expectations. Self-Justification and Cognitive Dissonance: Cognitive dissonance theory, proposed by Leon Festinger, states that individuals experience tension or dissonance when they hold contradictory thoughts or beliefs. To reduce this discomfort, people often adjust their thinking through self-justification. Insufficient justification refers to internally justifying one's behavior when external justification is lacking.
Perceiving Others
Social Perception:
Social perception is the process by which we aim to acquire knowledge and understanding about other individuals. It involves observing and interpreting the behaviors, actions, and cues exhibited by others to gain insights into their thoughts, feelings, and intentions.
Non-verbal Communication:
Non-verbal communication refers to the exchange of information between individuals without the use of spoken language. It relies on a silent form of communication through facial expressions, eye contact, gestures, posture, and body language. Non-verbal cues often convey emotions, attitudes, intentions, and social status, complementing or sometimes contradicting verbal communication.
Attribution:
