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This module delves into the fundamentals of semiconductors and basic electronics, focusing on electricity and magnetism. It explores the concept of moore's law and its impact on computing power, examines the properties of electronic materials like conductors, insulators, and semiconductors, and introduces the concept of energy bands. The module also covers doping, the process of adding impurities to semiconductors to enhance their conductivity, and explains the different types of semiconductors, including n-type and p-type. It further explores the operation of pn-junction diodes, their applications in rectification and voltage regulation, and provides examples of diode models and testing methods. The module concludes with an introduction to transistors, logic gates, prototyping boards, and printed circuit boards (pcbs).
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2 Moore’s Law and Computing Power Moore’s law, showing the progress in computing power over a 30-year span, illustrated here with Intel chip names. The Pentium 4 contains over 50 million transistors. Courtesy of Intel Corporation. Graph from https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/210872-extremetech-explains-what-is-moores-law
Energy Bands at room temperature 25° eV (electron volt) – the energy absorbed by an electron when it is subjected to a 1V difference of potential 1.2 Semiconductors, Conductors and Insulators
Semiconductor Semiconductors
Doping To make the semiconductor conduct electricity, other atoms called impurities must be added. “Impurities” are different elements. This process is called doping.
Semiconductors can be Conductors ■ An impurity, or element like arsenic (As), has 5 valence electrons. ■ Adding arsenic (doping) will allow four of the arsenic valence electrons to bond with the neighbouring silicon atoms. ■ The one electron left over for each arsenic atom becomes available to conduct current flow. ■ DONOR (D) impurity
Another Way to Dope ■ You can also dope a semiconductor material with an atom such as boron that has only 3 valence electrons. ■ The 3 electrons in the outer orbit do form covalent bonds with its neighbouring semiconductor atoms as before. But one electron is missing from the bond. ■ This place where a fourth electron should be is referred to as a hole. ■ The hole assumes a positive charge so it can attract electrons from some other source. ■ Holes become a type of current carrier like the electron to support current flow. ■ B is an ACCEPTOR (A) impurity
Types of Semiconductor Materials ■ The silicon doped with extra electrons is called an “N type” semiconductor. ■ “N” is for negative, which is the charge of an electron. ■ “n-type material” ND > NA ■ Silicon doped with material missing electrons that produce locations called holes is called “P type” semiconductor. ■ “P” is for positive, which is the charge of a hole. ■ “p-type material” NA > ND
SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES
16 Operation of a pn-junction Diode The operation of a pn - junction diode. (a) This is the no-bias case. The small thermal electron current ( It ) is offset by the electron recombination current ( Ir ). The net positive current ( I net) is zero. (b) With a DC voltage applied as shown, the diode is in reverse bias. Now Ir is slightly less than It. Thus there is a small net flow of electrons from p to n and positive current from n to p. (c) Here the diode is in forward bias. Because current can readily flow from p to n , Ir can be much greater than It. [ Note: In each case, It and Ir are electron (negative) currents, but I net indicates positive current.]
1.0kΩ 5V 1.0kΩ Determine the forward voltage and forward current [ forward bias ] for each of the diode model also find the voltage across the limiting
forward current. Diode Models