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Media Research Report Submitted to GURU GOBIND SINGH INDRAPRASTHA UNIVERSITY, NEW DELHI In partial fulfilment of Bachelor of Arts (Journalism & Mass Communication) By: Bhumika Khattar (Enrolment No. 50819302418) SESSION –2018- KASTURI RAM COLLEGE OF HIGHER EDUCATION (Affiliated to GGSIP University, New Delhi) NARELA, DELHI – 110040 CERTIFICATE - I
This is to certify that the Media Research Report submitted for the degree of Bachelor of Journalism & Mass Communication of Guru Gobind Singh Indraprastha University, New Delhi, is the bonafide, actually undertaken by Bhumika khattar, Enrolment No. 50819302418 under my guidance. The assistance received during the course of training has been acknowledged in. Signature of the Guide : Date : Name of the Guide. : Dr. Upasana Khuranna Designation : Associate Professor & (HOD) Address : Kasturi Ram College of Higher Education,. Narela, Delhi- CERTIFICATE – II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT It is my esteemed pleasure to present the project & whole-heartedly thank each and everyone who helped me in this task. I take the chance to express my heartfelt thanks and gratitude towards my college management for giving me a favourable environment to work, valuable inspiration and support during this project. I am also thankful to Executive Chairperson Mr. Rajesh Kumar Aggarwal, Director, Dr. G.P. SINGH, Admin Head, Ms. Geeta Sood, BA (JMC) HOD and my teacher Dr. Gopal Thakur, Dr. Upasana Khurana and all Faculty members for their constant support & guidance throughout the intimation & design of the project. He had shown keen interest in this venture and provided a constructive criticism and for his encouragement and vigilant guidance, which paved the way for successful completion of this work. I acknowledge my thanks to my friends and my well-wishers for their wholehearted assistance to help me accomplish my work. I regret if I have forgotten to mention anyone’s name. May god bless them all! Positive aspects of this project are attributed to them and faults are solely mine. Bhumika Khattar, BAJMC) – 5th Semester Enrolment No. 50819302418
1 Introduction 6- 2 Problem Statement 11 3 Significance of research 12 4 Objectives of research 12 5 Review of literature 12 6 Theoretical and conceptual framework 14 7 Research methodology 32- 8 Data Collection & Processing 34- 9 Data Representation & interpretation 41- 10 Conclusion 54 11 Refernce 55 12 55-
electoral violence and the interrelation between media and conflict management from global perspective they increasingly become dynamite. The media environment in Zimbabwe can best be understood through understanding its primitive stages up to date. The researcher would argue that media environment in Zimbabwe during 2008 & 2013 election periods started as a repressive one which later changed to be partially liberal respectively followed by the coming in of the new media facility (social media). The media tended to be democratic and liberal due to globalisation which brought about technological advancement within the country. Media environment was determined by the inherited repressive laws formerly used by the colonial regime, during Ian Douglas Smith he used media as his propaganda tool as some scholars like Chiumbu (2004) would want argue. It was however clear that the media policies and laws that were inherited served the current government hence they were derived from a Westminster document, Lanchester House Agreement. The Mugabe regime continued to use the same repressive laws that guarded government‘s interest. From the provisions of the Rhodesian Broadcasting Cooperation, the state was responsible for all the broadcasting services thus made it easy for the Mugabe regime to censor information and release that they perceived was necessary for the people. It was not enough until on the 25th of July 1990 when the Mugabe regime was given legal control of the media through a power transition which shaped the total independence of Zimbabwe from the white colonial government under Smith. The researcher posits that government taking full control of media was a step in the violation of human rights basing on the fact that, the laws were repressive and there was no media freedom since people could not express themselves through democratic journalism practises i.e. criticising the government where necessary. Previously during the colonial era, the was used to covering news from the metropolis
while events occurring in the African continent were rarely covered. Researcher is also of the view that only negative news about Africans was broadcasted so as to give a negative perception towards colonies. It was a measure to guard the interests of the Rhodesian government, through information censorship and gate-keeping of circulating news. With the government having inherited the so called draconian media laws from the colonial government, in 2009 the coming back into government of well-known political figure Professor Jonathan Moyo marked a turning point in the media environment of Zimbabwe. Professor Jonathan Moyo during his term as he served the Information, Communication & Technology ministry managed to introduce some media policies that had effect to public especially during the electoral times 2008/13.There were amendments made however they tended to favour and amass the government with a lot of powers in media industry as the paper will analyse in the later chapters. For example, the crafted media framework inhibited the activities of journalists as according to Freedom House,(2010).Taking for example the Broadcasting services Act (BSA) practically ostensibly allow for other broadcasting entities. The fact that Supreme Court struck down the monopoly on radio and television broadcasting held by Zimbabwe Broadcasting Cooperation (ZBC), the BSA contains so many restrictive clauses that it is virtually impossible for private investors to establish independent broadcasting companies and so by virtue of this undermined democratic journalism and the human rights of individuals in the country. Today, ZBC still enjoy a defacto control of the airwaves which the current government has relentlessly exploited to convince the electorate through provision of news they perceive necessary to the public The need to study influence of media is not a new phenomenon but it can be traced to the era of the Vietnam War whereby media was still in its early stages hence media platforms where
the case of Zimbabwe during the pre-independence era, the availability of televisions and newspapers had great impact in the sense that most the Rhodesians were in possession of media devices and had access to news. Through these readily available media platforms all the evils and grave human rights violations which were being conducted by the colonialists now circulated to most parts of the country. Pictures and videos of police brutality circulated and this gave the Rhodesians the motive and will to rebels against the unfair regime (imperialists) hence followed by the escalation of conflict as the people were already against imperial tendencies by the colonialists. From this case of Zimbabwe media proved to be a tool influencing escalation of conflicts which may however end up as violence. However, on the other hand there are also researches which show positive role played by media thus it is a tool for peace for example the case of Zimbabwe post-independence i.e. declaration of independence day and the resignation by the executive president R.G Mugabe after 37years of leadership as president. Matonga (1999) is of the view that, news declaring the national Independence Day on the 18th of April 1980 spread all over the country like no any other news. Since television and newspapers were available by then to most of the population, the news was quickly reached the public followed by the celebrations which are said to have occurred for a period of 7days celebration with the influence of media. Hence media influenced the population in a positive way. More so 98.4Fm Midlands Radio Station, ZBC SABC NEWS and many international news channels reviewed Zimbabweans celebrating in different cities after the media had shared information on the retirement of R.G Mugabe followed by the conviction of certain corrupt political figures whom were said to have undermined development within the country. This kind of transparent news set a positive motion into the country basing on the reaction of the
general populace after receiving the news from media platforms which included online social media and broadcastings mediums; hence media can be traced to have influence in promoting peace. The media‘s transparent nature through disseminating information on all the current political on goings showed democratic tendencies hence increased peoples patriotism and hope for a better nation, to mention but a few of the once positive roles played by media in conflicts. However, the research is proposing to find the effectiveness and the interrelations of media and elections in the contemporary Zimbabwe in an effort to add literature gaps.
The proposed research tries to come up with a solution to fulfil the needs of the objectives under study (influence of media during elections and conflict times), therefore the research will be to quench the needs on finding influences of mass media and the reduction of the effects of media during conflict and election times. However, few scholars and individuals have rarely investigated the indirect and invincible roles of media during conflict and election times. This deviation prompted the researcher to establish what role media could have played or failed to play based on the agenda setting theory.
The study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and research concerning the relationship between media, conflict and election. The research is to suggest and come up with possible measures to alter the problem at hand i.e. media‘s influence –electoral
Mass media effects have continued to dominate discussions among mass communication scholars most importantly theorists during the last to early millennium. The scope of media impact in the coverage of election in Zimbabwe from the pre- independence era to the contemporary times 2008/2013 has received considerable attention from both political scientist and media scholars. Okinoye and Nwokeafar (1989) are of the view that margin between the coverage and media type may be very high however the intent seems to be very similar. The proposed study area tries to find both negative and positive effects of media during and post elections and proffer possible solutions. Chavhunduka,M.G (2002) is of the view that media though unguarded and biased reporting and comments, directly or indirectly instigate political parties and their members in election violence. The research will also pay attention on the role of media towards election violence (during and after elections). Sometimes media houses (newspapers, radios and televisions) and civil society organisations (C.S.O) also suffer attacks during election times. Some scholars like McCombs posits that perpetrators of election violence are parties and their members , who use violence as a means of influencing the electoral process to their advantage and preventing election rigging by other parties .Most of the scholars tend to focus on the public as a main affected ones due to media‘s influence on electoral violence, but the proposed research will try to shade more light on the media houses and other opposition parties being affected by electoral violence as a result of media hence a stepping stone towards filling literature gaps. Moyse (2008) presupposes that today‘s media landscape as a civil society in collaboration with the independent press and particularly the relatively new Daily news, overcame a tidal wave of propaganda in the government controlled media campaigning for acceptance of the draft constitution. Basing on Moyse‘s view, it is the
research‘s aim to suggest solutions that may reduce media‘s negative impact during and after elections. In addition, countries like Rwanda, Congo, Somalia, Sudan and Kenya etc. have also experienced the impact of media followed by electoral violence, Jhazbhay (2008). The most recent role of media in conflict escalation is the Arab spring in the North Africa and the Middle East. This saw the overthrow of Libyan, Tunisian and Egyptian governments through mass action engineered by social media. Commenting on the media role in the uprising, for example (Times magazine, 2010) reported that while state controlled media outlets presented a one sided view of the Libyan conflict, their independent counterparts showed similar flows in both reporting and analysis. In order to objectively understand the nature and role of media in peace and conflict during election times, it is important to identify the various ways through which media influence conflict and conflict management. Newbold (1995) points out that majority of scholars and researchers have concentrated on the role of media in economic, social and political issues affecting states with little attention being given to electoral violence. As Sir Michael Howard noted, ‗television brings a crisis closer to governors but no new means to resolve it‘.
The proposed research will focus on the agenda setting theory in trying to expose the role played by media during conflict and election times. Theory entails the power of the media to set a nation‘s agenda, to focus public attention on a few key public issues, it is also an immense and well documented influence McComb‘s (1969). Theory also presumes that not only do people acquire factual information about public affairs from
electoral contest itself, such as failed or flawed elections, election fraud and weak or manipulated institutions and institutional rules governing the electoral processes. Conflict comes from a Latin word for striking, but it is not always violent. Conflict can arise from opposing ideas. If you are torn between two different desires, you are conflicted, Galtung (1958). McCombs and Shaw are of the view that media is a means or channel of general communication in society, as newspapers, radios, television (traditional media) or even social media e.g. Facebook, WhatsApp and YouTube etc. It has the first real mail or postal system which is said to have been developed by the Persian emperor Cyrus the Great (c.500BC) after his conquest of media.
The researcher presumes to use mixed research methods in collecting and gathering data. Mixed methods research is a research design with methodology, it involves philosophical assumptions that guide the direction of the collection and analysis of data and the mixture of qualitative and quantitative data in a single study or series of studies. Its central premise is that the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches in combination provides a better understanding of research problems that either approach alone Creswell and Plano Clark (2007: 5). Random interviews in different geographical locations, deep group discussions and analysis and issuing of questionnaires will be made use of in a bid to get a better understanding of the impacts of different media platforms towards elections and conflict escalation or de-escalation during the period under study 2008 and 2013 Delimitations Time frame: 21st century. Research is going to be conducted within the borders of Zimbabwe. Content: examining the role of media during conflict and election times. Anticipated limitations Collection of false information which may result in biased results.
Inaccessibility of remote areas. Language barrier in different locations.
In this chapter the researcher intends to explore how the media was accessed during the election period under review, in other words the paper trace the average number of people involved in the use of media in influencing elections and also explain the tools used enhance politics with the facilitation of media towards and during election. Finding the number of internet subscribers, mobile phone owners, and also the penetration rate of new technology into the country will help in weighing the effectiveness of media during period under review (2008/2013). Therefore tracing the accessibility nature of media platforms will help predict the media‘s influence, since a certain number of people resort to it during election times for however different reasons. In a bid to find how media was accessible to the masses in Zimbabwe, the paper will explain through document and content analysis, the distribution patterns of newspapers around the country from both private and state media, also analyse the penetration rate of new technology i.e. mobile phones and social media and finding number of internet subscribers.
the, then government through abduction of critical journalists like Jestina Mukoko whom was said to be anti-government through her publications, a former broadcaster at the Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation (ZBC) then privately-owned Voice of the People (VOP), was snatched from her home in Norton, 40 kilometres from the capital, by 15 men in plain clothes, Zimbabwe Lawyers for Human Rights (ZLHR) said. Another empirical evidence to prove that the government during 2008 elections tried by all means to prevent media to be accessible just people as wanted is when On 31 March 2007, freelance cameraman Edward Chikomba was found dead after being abducted in similar circumstances. Despite an absence of proof, suspicion has been directed at intelligence service agents, Reporters Without- boarders (2008). From such moves of killing and abducting journalists, one would argue that it was a stepping stone towards ousting manifestation of opposing ideas by the private media houses for example Daily News and anti-government journalists, hence a limitation towards promoting media to be accessible especially during elections. This however was a disadvantage to the opposition parties who were partially covered in a negative way by the then pro- government newspapers, thus information from the opposition parties was disregarded hence not accessible. It meant that the public had no option but to rely on the news by the state owned newspapers. Therefore, this did not favour equality in the dispensation of news from all the contesting political parties. The author would want to posit that media accessibility was biased towards favouring the government of R.G Mugabe. EXPLANATION The Zamps survey, published by the Zimbabwe Advertising Research Foundation, found The Herald has 266 884 daily readers, just over three quarters of them urban and just
under a quarter rural. In second place, leading a tight pack of four newspapers, comes News Day with 146 807 readers. This tight pack has Daily News in third place, H-Metro in fourth place and Chronicle in fifth place. Another step down in sixth place is News Day‘s western stablemate, Southern Eye. Three of the six dailies — The Herald, H- Metro and Chronicle — are owned by Zimbabwe Newspapers, with a combined readership of around 465 000.
Agenda setting theory explaining the role of media during election times: Representation Saliencing & Silencing Framing and Gate-Keeping Hate Speech, Threats Political Advertisements Photos and Cartoon images Political Songs
Propaganda, for right or wrong reasons, is often associated with negative connotations. It is often perceived that propaganda techniques can only be employed by autocratic and
