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Paper-I Research Methodology
Objective: The Objective of this course is to enable researchers irrespective of their discipline in developing the most appropriate methodology for their research studies and to make them familiar with the art of using different research methods and techniques. Unit-I Research: Meaning, Uses, Research process, Types of research: Pure, Applied, Historical, Analytical, Descriptive and Experimental, Selection of research problem, Review of Literature, Hypothesis: meaning, sources, types and characteristics.
Unit-II Tools for Data Collection, Construction of Schedule & questionnaire, Index and Scales, Process of data collection, Interview: Purpose, Types and techniques of interview, Mail survey, Telephonic survey, Case Study, Observation: Types of observation, Focus Group Discussion, Content Analysis. Unit-III Sampling: Meaning, & Importance, Characteristics of a good sample, Probability & Non probability sampling, Methods of sampling: Simple random, Stratified random, Cluster sampling, Systematic sampling, Multiple sampling, convenience sampling, snowball sampling, Quota Sampling, selection of sample, factor affecting the size of the sample, Ways of selecting sample size, Biased sample, sampling and non sampling errors.
Unit-IV Classification & Tabulation of Data: Graphical and Diagrammatic representation, Correlation and Regression Analysis, Testing of Hypothesis, Parametric and Non-Parametric tests, Data Analysis: ANOVA, F-test, Chi Square test and t-test, Z- test.
Unit-V Computer Based Analysis, Report Writing and Referencing, Software Application in data analysis.
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MEANING OF RESEARCH
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research asa scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is anart of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English lays down themeaning of research as “a careful investigation or inquiry specially through search for new facts inany branch of knowledge.”1 Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gainnew knowledge.” Some people consider research as a movement, a movement from the known tothe unknown. It is actually a voyage of discovery. We all possess the vital instinct of inquisitivenessfor, when the unknown confronts us, we wonder and our inquisitiveness makes us probe and attainfull and fuller understanding of the unknown. This inquisitiveness is the mother of all knowledge andthe method, which man employs for obtaining the knowledge of whatever the unknown, can betermed as research. Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulatinghypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organizing and evaluating data; making deductions andreaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to determine whether they fit theformulating hypothesis. D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopedia of Social Sciencesdefine research as “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing toextend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in thepractice of an art.”3 Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledgemaking for its advancement. It is the persuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparisonand experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method offinding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization and theformulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the systematic methodconsisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the form of solutions(s) towards the concernedproblem or in certain generalizations for some theoretical formulation. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientificprocedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not beendiscovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think ofresearch objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
aconcrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identifysocial, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the copy research(research to find out whether certain communications will be read and understood) or themarketing research or evaluation research are examples of applied research. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to discover a solution for some pressing practical problem,whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has a broad base ofapplications and thus, adds to the already existing organized body of scientific knowledge. (iii) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantityor amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested ininvestigating the reasons for human behaviour (i.e., why people think or do certain things),we quite often talk of ‘Motivation Research’, an important type of qualitative research.This type of research aims at discovering the underlying motives and desires, using in depthinterviews for the purpose. Other techniques of such research are word association tests,sentence completion tests, story completion tests and similar other projective techniques.Attitude or opinion research i.e., research designed to find out how people feel or whatthey think about a particular subject or institution is also qualitative research. Qualitativeresearch is specially important in the behavioural sciences where the aim is to discover theunderlying motives of human behaviour. Through such research we can analyse the variousfactors which motivate people to behave in a particular manner or which make people likeor dislike a particular thing. It may be stated, however, that to apply qualitative research in 4 Pauline V. Young, Scientific Social Surveys and Research, p. 30. 4 Research Methodology practice is relatively a difficult job and therefore, while doing such research, one shouldseek guidance from experimental psychologists. (iv) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) ortheory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or toreinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience orobservation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.We can also call it as experimental type of research. In such a research it is necessary toget at facts firsthand, at their source, and actively
to go about doing certain things tostimulate the production of desired information. In such a research, the researcher mustfirst provide himself with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He thenworks to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove his hypothesis. He then sets upexperimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the materials concernedso as to bring forth the desired information. Such research is thus characterized by theexperimenter’s control over the variables under study and his deliberate manipulation ofone of them to study its effects. Empirical research is appropriate when proof is sought thatcertain variables affect other variables in some way. Evidence gathered through experimentsor empirical studies is today considered to be the most powerful support possible for agiven hypothesis. (v) Some Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or moreof the above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the timerequired to accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on thebasis of some other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of researcheither as one-time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research isconfined to a single time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on overseveral time-periods. Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research orsimulation research, depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such researchfollow case-study methods or indepth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Suchstudies usually go deep into the causes of things or events that interest us, using very smallsamples and very deep probing data gathering devices. The research may be exploratoryor it may be formalized. The objective of exploratory research is the development ofhypotheses rather than their testing, whereas formalized research studies are those withsubstantial structure and with specific hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas ofthe past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point of time. Researchcan also be classified as conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusionorientedresearch, a researcher is free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as heproceeds and is prepared to conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research isalways for the need of a decision maker and the researcher in this case is not free toembark upon research according to his own inclination. Operations research is an exampleof decision oriented research since it is a scientific
(ii) Hypothesis should be capable of being tested. In a swamp of untestable hypotheses, manya time the research programmes have bogged down. Some prior study may be done byresearcher in order to make hypothesis a testable one. A hypothesis “is testable if otherdeductions can be made from it which, in turn, can be confirmed or disproved by observation.” (iii) Hypothesis should state relationship between variables, if it happens to be a relationalhypothesis. (iv) Hypothesis should be limited in scope and must be specific. A researcher must rememberthat narrower hypotheses are generally more testable and he should develop such hypotheses. (v) Hypothesis should be stated as far as possible in most simple terms so that the same iseasily understandable by all concerned. But one must remember that simplicity of hypothesishas nothing to do with its significance. (vi) Hypothesis should be consistent with most known facts i.e., it must be consistent with asubstantial body of established facts. In other words, it should be one which judges acceptas being the most likely. (vii) Hypothesis should be amenable to testing within a reasonable time. One should not useeven an excellent hypothesis, if the same cannot be tested in reasonable time for onecannot spend a life-time collecting data to test it. (viii) Hypothesis must explain the facts that gave rise to the need for explanation. This meansthat by using the hypothesis plus other known and accepted generalizations, one should beable to deduce the original problem condition. Thus hypothesis must actually explain whatit claims to explain; it should have empirical reference. Sources of Hypothesis: A hypothesis may be formulated through a number of is sources. Following are the main sources of hypothesis.Personal ExperienceImagination & Thinking ♦ Observation ♦ Scientific Theory ♦ Previous Study ♦ Culture ♦ Previous Study Previous study is also a source of developing a concrete hypothesis. If a researcher uses previous knowledge about a phenomenon for a particular place, then another researcher followed his techniques and formulates his own. For example increase in fertilizers and irrigation leads to higher production in agriculture in District Mardan. Now another researcher studies his work and applies it to another District Nowshera.
Personal Experience On the basis of his personal experience he uses his mind and suggests some points for the eradication of a social problem through developing a good hypothesis. Greater the researcher experience lead to higher degree of formation.
Imagination & Thinking Creative thinking and imagination of a researcher sometimes help in formulating a good hypothesis. Personal ideas and the thinking capabilities of a researcher would lead to greater number of hypothesis formulation as well as control over the problem. Observation In consideration and undertaking a research problem, observation is necessary. The collection of previous facts and current facts related to the problem lead to the formulation of a good hypothesis. Scientific Theory Theory is capable in explaining all the facts relating to the problem. Scientific theory is a fertile source of hypothesis formulation. The theory which is used by a researcher may satisfied the needs of making it, because theory explains the known facts.
Culture Culture is the accumulation of ways of behaving and adoption in a particular place and time. While formulating a hypothesis for a problem, culture should be studied. If we want to study trends towards female education in a particular area, for this purpose we will study, traditions, family system, Norms, Values, region and education system of that area.
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Tools of Data Collection Data Collection Tools Case Studies A case study is usually an in-depth description of a process, experience, or structure at a single institution. In order to answer a combination of ‘what’ and ‘why’ questions, case studies generally involve a mix of quantitative (i.e., surveys, usage statistics, etc.) and qualitative (i.e., interviews, focus groups, extant document analysis, etc.) data collection techniques. Most often, the researcher will analyze quantitative data first and then use qualitative strategies to look deeper into the meaning of the trends identified in the numerical data.
Checklists Checklists structure a person’s observation or evaluation of a performance or artifact. They can be simple lists of criteria that can be marked as present or absent, or can provide space for observer comments. These tools can provide consistency over time or between observers. Checklists can be used for evaluating databases, virtual IM service, the use of library space, or for structuring peer observations of instruction sessions.
Interviews In-Depth Interviews include both individual interviews (e.g., one-on-one) as well as “group” interviews (including focus groups). The data can be recorded in a wide variety of ways including stenography, audio recording, video recording or written notes. In depth interviews differ from direct observation primarily in the nature of the interaction. In interviews it is assumed that there is a questioner and one or more interviewees. The purpose of the interview is to probe the ideas of the interviewees about the phenomenon of interest.
Observation Sometimes, the best way to collect data through observation. This can be done directly or indirectly with the subject knowing or unaware that you are observing them. You may choose to collect data through continuous observation or via set time periods depending on your project. You may interpret data you gather using the following mechanisms:
Descriptive observations: you simply write down what you observe
Inferential observations: you may write down an observation that is inferred by the subject’s body language and behavior. Evaluative observation:You may make an inference and therefore a judgment from the behavior. Make sure you can replicate these findings. Surveys or Questionnaires Surveys or questionnaires are instruments used for collecting data in survey research. They usually include a set of standardized questions that explore a specific topic and collect information about demographics, opinions, attitudes, or behaviors. Three popular programs that allow you to create online surveys are Google Forms, Survey Monkey, and Poll Everywhere. A great (low-cost) tool for reference statistics is Gimlet.
What are the Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaire/Schedule and Successful Interviewing? August 27, 2016 rsm
Guidelines for Constructing Questionnaire/Schedule
Researchers must pay attention to the following points in constructing an appropriate and effective Questionnaire or schedule:
- He is the researcher must pay close attention to study its problems provided a starting point Point to develop a questionnaire / schedule. He must be clear in all aspects His research questions dealing with the process of his research project.
- The nature of the information depends on the problem of proper form sought by the sampled And the respondents expect the kind of analysis. Researchers must decide whether to use Closed or open-ended questions. The problem should be simple, must be constructed They form a good view of the logical part of deliberate tabulation plan. The unit List should also be precisely defined, so that they can ensure accurate and adequate information.
- Preliminary Questionnaire / program preparation, appropriate to give due thought Proposed order of questions. Prior to the drafting of a questionnaire or schedule (if available) Wish to see at this stage.
observed by everyone to Ensure that all elements of the study reasonable uniformity.
Difference Between Survey and Experiment
The following points are worth noting, as long as the difference in terms of investigation and experimentation:
(A) in the investigation investigation descriptive, which is as an experimental one case, conduct Part of the experimental study of learning. Investigation
(B) type of investigation, because usually there is a larger percentage of the sample The reaction usually happens to be low, as low as 20-30%, especially in the postal questionnaire Learn. Therefore, methods of investigation, from a relatively large number of cases in the collection of data Specific time; it is essentially a cross-sectional view. As against this, experimental studies usually Needs of small samples. Description
(c) Investigation of interest, recording, analysis and interpretation of the conditions Either exists or ever existed. The researchers did not arrange or manipulated variable Event occurs. Investigation only concerned with the presence of a condition or relation, This is obvious advice is being held, how these activities are going on, the effect or tendency They are developed. They focused on the present, but sometimes also consider And impact of past events as they relate to current conditions. Thus, in the survey, variable Selected and observed the presence or has occurred. Experimental study answered a systematic and logical approach this problem, If this is inappropriate when controlling certain variables, or do “what will happen manipulate? “In fact, deliberate manipulation is part of the experimental method. In Experiment, the researchers measured the effect of his experiment intentionally.
(D) the survey is usually the case of social and behavioral sciences, and appropriate (as many Researchers are interested in the type of behavior can not be arranged in a realistic setting) Among them, as most of the experiment is a fundamental feature of the physical and natural sciences.
(E) survey is an example of field research, as experiments constitute general Such as laboratory research. Relationship Analysis hypothesis formulation and testing
(F) investigation of interest Between non-manipulated variable. Experiment provides hypothesis testing methods. Experimenter to define a problem, they proposed a hypothesis. They then test And confirm the hypothesis, or the relationship between the variable light control refute it They have been observed. Confirm or reject always said from the probability And uncertainty. Experiment, therefore, is the most advanced, rigorous, powerful The method of discovery and development of organizational knowledge. ultimate The experiment is designed to summarize variable relationship, so that they can Lab applied to the outside of the broader population of interest. *
(G) may be a census or survey sampling. They can also be classified as a social Surveys, economic surveys or opinion polls. Whether it is their type, the method Data collection is not just observation, or interviews or questionnaires / opinionnaire Or some projection technology
(H). Case study methods can be used simultaneously. However, in the following cases Experiments, data is collected from the experiments of several readings.
(I) in the case under investigation, study design must be rigid and must provide adequate protection Against prejudice and for the target happens to be a complete, must maximize reliability accurate information. In the case of experimental studies, study design, in addition to reducing bias And to ensure the reliability, it must be allowed to draw causal inferences.
(J) data, and the possible relationship between the unknowns in the universe can be studied By this experiment, as the investigation was to determine the relationship.
(K) the causal analysis, the experiment was considered relatively more important, because in most Social and business surveys we are interested in understanding and controlling relationship Between variables, correlation analysis is relatively more important in the investigation.
Process of Collecting Data:
- Does the organization have clear, transparent and fair complaint procedures in place to deal with allegations of discrimination, harassment or systemic barriers?
- Have any claims, grievances or allegations been made or received relating to discrimination, harassment or systemic barriers? - Do any signal barriers to persons protected under the Code and/ or other individuals/groups in society based on a non- Code ground? - Have any been dealt with appropriately and in accordance with existing polices, practices and procedures? Explore organizational culture from a human rights, diversity and equity- inclusion lens:
- What are the organization's mandate, goals and core values?
- What is the history of the organization?
- Are equity, diversity and inclusiveness supported, reflected and promoted by senior leaders throughout the organization?
- Are performance measures in place to motivate the achievement of an organization’s strategic human resources, human rights, equity and diversity goals?
- Do employees feel that the organization is diverse, inclusive, and provides equal opportunity for learning and advancement?
- How are decisions made?
- How are employment, programming or service delivery opportunities advertised?
- Does the organization have formal, transparent and fair processes in place to recruit, hire, promote, terminate and retire staff?
- Does the organization have a clear system of discipline?
- Is this system perceived to be applied fairly and consistently?
- Do service users feel that they are welcome, valued, and able to use the services offered by the organization? Assess external context:
- Are there best practices in the industry/sector or among similar organizations that can be learned from?
- Are there objective data or research studies showing that discrimination or systemic barriers exist or do not exist in the organization, industry/sector or similar organizations?
- Is there evidence from other organizations or jurisdictions that a policy, program or practice, similar to one in place at the organization, has
had a positive or negative impact on Code-protected persons or other marginalized persons in society?
- How is the organization perceived by the community it operates in?
- Have the media or advocacy groups complimented or criticized the organization about human rights, human resource or equity issues?
- What are the demographics of the people the organization serves or the community it operates in? - Are the demographics changing or projected to change in the future? - Is the organization proactively looking at ways to make sure that it has the skills and knowledge to meet the potential needs and concerns of this changing demographic? Check representation:
- Compare the organization’s workforce makeup to the availability of labour or the demographics of the service users in the community, city, region, province and/or country it operates in.
- Is the organization representative of and responsive to the needs of the community it serves?
- At this stage, a detailed comparison is not needed. The goal here is to identify key issues and/or opportunities that may need further study by noting obvious gaps, disparities or trends.
- Organizations can:
- Estimate how people or groups identified by Code grounds and other persons/groups are represented and distributed among their employees or service users by levels of responsibility, occupation, branch, department or other appropriate measure.
- Are there any areas in the organization or in service delivery where the persons or groups seem to be obviously over- represented or under-represented? Finding the above information can be challenging for smaller organizations, but the internet offers a wealth of resources to choose from. Media reports may offer insights, as well as on-line resources offered by the OHRC, Statistics Canada,[22] the City of Toronto,[23]government agencies, and community organizations that focus on Code and non- Code ground-related topics. Information may also be gathered from various sources using accepted data collection research methodologies discussed in Step 3. It is to be expected that an internal and external assessment of the organization, in light of the questions listed above, may result in a number of potential issues and/or opportunities for exploring data collection. Before
programs and services that are accessible and appropriate to meet the needs and concerns of these taxpayers.
- Did the internal and external assessment of the organization in Step 1 reveal any critical gaps or trends that are apparent in the organization, industry/sector or similar organizations?
- Is there one particular area that has drawn positive/negative media attention or been subject to multiple complaints, internal rumours and concerns?
- Does there seem to be a greater diversity or lack of diversity in one area compared to others? Goal-setting
While the organization may intend to collect data relating to multiple issues and/or opportunities at the same time, the next steps, including goal-setting, should be individualized for each issue and/or opportunity.
The specific goal(s) defined for each issue and/or opportunity may depend on a hypothesis or guess about what is happening that can be tested using data collection techniques and analysis.
Example: A downtown Toronto hotel receives complaints from guests, who self-identify as being gay, about the unwelcome treatment they received from staff. A hypothesis might be that hotel staff lack sufficient awareness and training about how to deal respectfully with guests who are gay, or are perceived to be from the larger LGBT community. The goal is to get enough evidence to test this hypothesis. Step 2 can also involve an organization brainstorming a smaller set of questions that may be answered by collecting data. Rather than asking a general question like, “Is there any evidence of discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity in this hotel?” one might ask, “What percentage of hotel guests self-identify as being part of the LGBT community?” and “What are the perceptions of the service received by self- identified LGBT patrons?” Ultimately, data that is collected should be rationally connected to the goals set and the overall purpose for collecting the data.
Step 3: Plan an approach and methods
In Step 3, organizations will make decisions about who will be surveyed, how data will be collected, the sources of data that will be used, and the duration of the data collection project, among other questions. These decisions may be made in consultation with an expert. The methods and approaches will
flow from the goals set in Step 2, and will vary significantly depending on a number of factors, including the organization’s context, size, resources, and the purpose and complexity of the issue(s) or opportunity(ies) selected.
Some of the questions to consider at this stage include:
Who will the data be collected about?
The “group of interest” (e.g. youth service users of a local community centre who cannot read and speak English as a second language) will be the focus of the study, and the data collection methods used will refer to this group, or the persons within it, depending on the goals of the project.
Understanding discrimination
- When thinking about who the data will be collected about, it is important to consider who you think will be most affected by, for example, the discrimination or inequities that you wish to measure. Is it a broad category (e.g. all service users who cannot read), or a sub- set of that category (e.g. youth service users who cannot read)? The italicized words refer to a unique characteristic about a broader group that an organization may wish to gather information about.
- Depending on factors like the goals of the data collection project, the organization’s size, resources and time, data may be gathered about many sub-sets within a broader group of interest (e.g. youth service users who cannot read and who speak English as a second language ).
- Collecting data about a group of interest that shares characteristics, based on several Code or non- Code grounds, can help an organization understand the behaviour, perceptions, values and demographic makeup of services users and other subjects of interest. Generally speaking, gathering data that reflects more than one Code and/or non- Code ground can allow for richer, nuanced information and more complex analysis.
- It is important to recognize that based on their unique combination of identities, people may be exposed to particular forms of discrimination. Multiple forms of discrimination can intersect and compound to form a unique experience of discrimination. This perspective is referred to as an “intersectional” analysis of discrimination. Example: A South Asian male youth service user, who cannot read and speaks limited English, may face discrimination on any of the grounds of age, race, colour, ancestry, ethnic origin, place of origin, gender, disability or perceived disability ( e.g. could be seen as having a learning disability).
