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Personality traits
- are characteristic behaviors and feelings that are consistent and long lasting. Unlike traits, which are stable characteristics of a person that produce an effect on behavior. Personality states
- are temporary behaviors or feelings that depend on a person's situation and motives at a particular time.
- is an inferred psychodynamic disposition ( Cohen, Swerdlik, Sturman, 2002) Refers to the transitory exhibition of some personality trait. (Cohen, Swerdlik, Sturman, 2005) Personanility types
- is used to identify a certain collection of traits that make up a broad, general personality classification and occur together in some individuals
- defined as a constellation of traits that is similar in pattern to one identified category of personality within the taxonomy of personalities. Gordon Allport (1897–1967)
- from 4k words describing different personality traits (from 1936), categorized into three levels:
- Cardinal traits dominate and shape an individual's behavior, such as Ebenezer Scrooge's greed or Mother Theresa's altruism.
- Central traits come next in the hierarchy; common and serve as the basic building blocks of most people’s personality. If you think of the major terms you might use to describe your overall character; then those are probably your central traits.
- Secondary traits exist at the bottom of the hierarchy and are not quite as obvious or consistent as central traits; personality traits that tend to present themselves in certain situations.
PERSONALITY TRAITS TESTS
1. 16 PF (16 Personality Factors) Raymond Cattell
- based on Eysenck’s theory of personality is based on three dimensions: introversion vs. extroversion, neuroticism vs. stability, and psychoticism vs. socialization. (biological bases of personality traits)
- out of 4k words he reduced the number of main personality traits down to 171, through Factor Analysis, the number of main personality traits reduced to 16 through identifying closely related terms.
- Raymond Cattell (1957) identified 16 factors or dimensions of personality: warmth, reasoning, emotional stability, dominance, liveliness, rule-consciousness, social boldness, sensitivity, vigilance, abstractedness, privateness, apprehension, openness to change, self-reliance, perfectionism, and tension. Cattell's 16 Personality Factor Model aims to construct a common
taxonomy of traits using a lexical approach to narrow natural language to standard applicable personality adjectives.
- The 16 Personality Factor Model aims to measure personality based upon sixteen source traits. Surface traits represent clusters of correlated variables and source traits represent the underlying structure of the personality. Source traits much more important in understanding personality than surface traits (Hall& Lindzey, 1978). The identified source traits became the primary basis for the 16 PF Model. 2. MPQ (Manchester Personality Questionnaire)
- The Manchester Personality Questionnaire is an instrument comprised of 90 items rated on a five-point scale. MPQ is specifically designed to provide a comprehensive assessment of those key personality traits that are likely to have a high impact on work success. The MPQ is an occupational personality test that focuses on traits relevant to creative and innovative behavior. It is a powerful tool for understanding an individual’s strengths, weaknesses, and areas of competence and is designed for selection, training, as well as development. 3. The Edwards Personal Preference Schedule (EPPS)
- is a forced choice, objective, non-projective personality inventory, developed by Allen L. Edwards and derived from the theory of H. A. Murray. The EPPS measures the rating of individuals in fifteen normal needs or motives. On the EPPS there are nine statements used for each scale. Social Desirability ratings have been done for each item, and the pairing of items attempts to match items of approximately equal social desirability. Fifteen pairs of items are repeated twice for the consistency scale.
- The EPPS has been designed primarily for personal counselling, but has found its way into recruitment as well. The EPPS is very suitable for these purposes.
PERSONALITY TYPE TESTS
1. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality inventory - the aim of Isabel Briggs Myers, and her mother, Katharine Briggs, was to make the insights of type theory accessible to individuals and groups. - is to make the theory of psychological types described by Carl Gustav Jung understandable and useful in people's lives. The essence of the theory is that much seemingly random variation in the behavior is actually quite orderly and consistent, being due to basic differences in the ways individuals prefer to use their perception and judgment.
We can successfully measure personality traits with different tools and techniques. All in all, these tests are trying to discover how much your behaviour varies from high to low in the five traits which include; Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism. Openness is a characteristic that includes imagination and insight. The world, other people and an eagerness to learn and experience new things is particularly high for this personality trait. It leads to having a broad range of interests and being more adventurous when it comes to decision making. Conscientiousness is a trait that includes high levels of thoughtfulness, good impulse control, and goal-directed behaviours. This organised and structured approach is often found within people who work in science and even high-retail finance where detail orientation and organisation are required as a skill set. Extraversion (sometimes referred to as Extroversion) is a trait that many will have come across in their own lives. It’s easily identifiable and widely recognisable as “someone who gets energised in the company of others.” This, amongst other traits which include, talkativeness, assertiveness and high amounts of emotional expressiveness, have made extraverted people widely recognisable over many years of social interaction. People who exhibit high agreeableness will show signs of trust, altruism, kindness, and affection. Highly agreeable people tend to have high prosocial behaviours which means that they’re more inclined to be helping other people. Sharing, comforting and cooperating are traits that lend themselves to highly agreeable personality types. Empathy towards others is commonly understood as another form of agreeableness even if the term doesn’t quite fit. Neuroticism is characterised by sadness, moodiness, and emotional instability. Often mistaken for anti-social behaviour, or worse a greater psychological issue, neuroticism is a physical and emotional response to stress and perceived threats in someone’s daily life. Individuals who exhibit high levels of neuroticism will tend to experience mood swings, anxiety and irritability. Some individuals who experience sudden changes in character from a day-to-day perspective could be highly neurotic and respond to high stress levels in their work and personal lives.
PERSONALITY STATE TEST
1. The State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) by Charles D. Spielberger is a commonly used measure of trait and state anxiety (Spielberger, Gorsuch, Lushene, Vagg, & Jacobs, 1983). It can be used in clinical settings to diagnose anxiety and to distinguish it from depressive syndromes. It also is often used in research as an indicator of caregiver distress (e.g., Greene et al., 2017, Ugalde et al., 2014). Projective techniques Is a personality assessment technique derived from individuals’ responses from ambiguous stimuli in order to elicit hidden emotions and internal conflicts projected by the individual.
Example: In comparison with other assessment methods, a clinician using a projective technique typically presents a client with an ambiguous stimulus (e.g., an inkblot), or asks the client to generate a response following open-ended instructions (e.g., “Draw a person”). Thus, for projective techniques, stimuli tend to be ambiguous and the nature of response options tends to be varied. The primary logic underlying these tests is the projective hypothesis— in the process of making sense of an ambiguous stimulus, the respondent presumably “projects” important aspects of his or her personality onto that stimulus. The test interpreter then works “in reverse” to infer the respondent’s personality traits. Examples of Projective technique instruments
1. Rorschach Inkblot Developed by the Swiss psychiatrist Hermann Rorschach in the 1920s, the Rorschach consists of 10 inkblots that are each printed on a separate card. During the first phase of the test (the response phase), the client is handed the cards one at a time and instructed to say what each blot resembles. In general, clients are allowed to give as many or as few responses as they wish. On average, clients make about 21 responses for the 10 cards. During the second phase (the inquiry phase), each response is reviewed as the psychologist asks questions to clarify the nature of each response. For example, the psychologist tries to determine the exact location of the perception, and whether it was affected by the color or shading of the card or by other factors. Currently, the most widely used system for administering, scoring, and interpreting the Rorschach is Exner’s Comprehensive System (CS). Clinicians interpret test results for individual clients by comparing their test responses with normative data, that is, with those obtained for some meaningful comparison group (e.g., the general public or a group having a specific psychiatric diagnosis). Normative data were obtained for the Rorschach by administering it to individuals in the general community. Recent evidence indicates that the Comprehensive System norms are in error. When results for relatively normal individuals were compared with results for the CS normative samples, the relatively normal individuals deviated markedly in a direction that supposedly indicates that they have serious psychopathology. Thus, interpreting the Rorschach using the CS norms tends to make many normal individuals look emotionally disturbed. This is likely to have harmful consequences. For example, clients in psychotherapy can be persuaded that they have problems they do not really have. Similarly, in forensic settings, clients may be given the Rorschach as part of a psychological evaluation. If they are described as having mental problems they do not really have, this could have deleterious consequences such as loss of custody of their children or denial of parole. 2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), developed by Henry Murray and his student Christiana Morgan, consists of 31 cards, with a picture of an ambiguous situation on each card. For example, one picture shows a young woman grabbing the shoulders of a young man who seems to be pulling away from her. Respondents are instructed to look at each card and construct
The house-tree-person test (HTP) is a projective test intended to measure different aspects of personality. Test takers are asked to draw a house, a tree, and a person. The interpretation of these drawings is used to create a picture of the person’s cognitive, emotional, and social functioning. Qualitative scoring, on the other hand, is a subjective analysis of a drawing meant to measure the test taker’s personality. This type of scoring of the house-tree-person test is highly personal and can vary from one analyst to another. Similarly to the scoring of other qualitative tests, there is limited empirical evidence to support its validity.
5. The House-Person-Tree Personality Test Each time we draw something, we subconsciously project our personality onto the piece of paper. Without us realizing it, even the simplest drawing can shed light on our emotions, intelligence, self-esteem, and fears. A drawing assessment known as the house-tree-person test is a common technique that psychologists use to learn more about personality traits. What is the House-Tree-Person Test? The house-tree-person test (HTP) is a projective test intended to measure different aspects of personality. Test takers are asked to draw a house, a tree, and a person. The interpretation of these drawings is used to create a picture of the person’s cognitive, emotional, and social functioning. Qualitative scoring, on the other hand, is a subjective analysis of a drawing meant to measure the test taker’s personality. This type of scoring of the house-tree-person test is highly personal and can vary from one analyst to another. Similarly to the scoring of other qualitative tests, there is limited empirical evidence to support its validity. The house-tree-person test was developed by early clinical psychologist John Buck in
- Based on the Draw-A-Man personality test created by Florence Goodenough in 1926, it was originally designed to assess children’s intelligence. Buck further updated the HTP test together with psychologist Emanuel Hammer in 1969. The house-tree-person test is one of the most widely used projective tests for children and adults and is suitable for any individuals aged 3 years and older. The test is used by clinical psychologists, occupational therapists, and educators. It is also employed as part of a series of personality and intelligence tests, including the Rorschach, TAT, and WAIS, as a means of personality assessment. What’s more, the HTP test is an effective tool in evaluating brain damage in patients with schizophrenia. The house-tree-person test takes on average 150 minutes to complete. Therapists can choose between a one-phase test where a pencil or crayon is used for drawing and a two-phase test that uses a crayon in the first phase and a pencil in the second.
Each phase has two parts where the first nonverbal and creative step is followed by the structured, verbal one. Test takers are instructed to draw a house, a tree, and a person as accurately as possible on separate sheets of paper. They are then asked a number of questions about their drawings. Buck proposed a list of 60 questions, however, trained test givers are free to create their own variations and ask follow-up questions. Here are some examples of the questions that might be asked: The house:
- Who lives in the house?
- Do people visit the house?
- Is it a happy house?
- What is the house made of?
- What goes on inside the house? The tree:
- What kind of tree is it?
- How old is the tree?
- What season is it?
- Is the tree alive?
- Who waters the tree? The person:
- Who is the person?
- How old is the person?
- How does that person feel?
- Is the person happy?
- What does the person like doing? After the respondents have answered the questions, their drawings are analyzed and interpreted. The house-tree-person test is based on the idea that drawings reflect feelings. The details of a drawing are seen as representations of various personality traits. Drawing a house
- The house is considered being the expression of the respondent's family relations and family values.
- The roof stands for the intellectual side and spiritual life of the individual.
- The walls might be related to the test taker’s character strength.
Test taker’s attitude In addition to all of the above elements, therapists also consider the test taker’s attitude, words, and gestures while drawing. Any display of frustration, anger, or satisfaction is taken into account in test analysis. The House-Tree-Person Test Scoring A house-tree-person test can be scored either in an objective quantitative or subjective qualitative manner. Trained therapists rely on John Buck’s comprehensive 350-page manual and interpretive guide in administering and scoring the HTP tests. Quantitative scoring provides a general assessment of intelligence. Research shows that the quantitative assessment correlates highly with other well-established intelligence tests.
WHO
Who is being assessed and who is doing the assessment? Self as the primary referant
- Individuals who undergo personality assessment based on self-report. Self-report relies largely on the individuals self-concept – defines as one’s attitudes, beliefs, opinions and related thoughts about oneself. In psychological testing, examiner should look into the area of self-concept differentiation (scd) because it connotes that individual with low scd tend to be healthier psychologically. Self-concept differentiation - refers to an individual's tendency to view oneself as possessing different personality characteristics across different social roles or contexts (Donahue et al. 1993). Another Person as the referent
- a method for personality assessment in which information and data of the presenting client are obtained from third party, such as parent, peers, supervisor, teachers and other significant others. However, some loopholes are to be checked; Generalized bias rating (leniency or generosity error) Central tendency error Halo effect Cultural Background of Assessment Sensitivity towards issues on multicultural diversity. Cultural bias occurs in testing materials when test items assess knowledge or experiences that are specific to a certain culture. In comparison, cultural bias in the
examiner comes from expectations based on his or her experiences and background rather than that of the culture of the child.
WHAT
Primary Content Area Sampled
- Personality test and other assessment tools that are used to gain insight into a wide array of thoughts, feelings and behaviors should be designed to measure the particular construct as it measured. Response Style
- Refers to the tendency of the examinees to respond to an item characteristically with patterns of behavior response like; o Acquiescent tending to accept or allow what others want or demand o Impression Management - selective exposure of information. the effort to control or shape another person's perceptive.
WHERE
- Assessment can be conducted in almost all places with a view in mind that it is for the welfare of the examinee. But traditional sites can be in school, clinics, hospitals, laboratories, employment recruitment rooms, vocational centers among others.
HOW
- Scope and Theory
- Procedure and item format
- Frame of reference
- Scoring and interpretation o Nomothetic vs Idiographic approach o Normative Approach
