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Pharmacy notes about, Lecture notes of Pharmacology

The UCL School of Pharmacy Pharmacology

Notes regarding pharmacy and other

Typology: Lecture notes

2023/2024

Uploaded on 05/31/2025

fatima-nxy 🇬🇧

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Oral Defence by beso - Labs

Topic 1: Microbiology Lab 1 - 3

- Petri dish : Marked on the base

- Initials, experiment, date.

- Pipette: yellow tips- small volumes

- Blue tips- larger volumes

- Active antimicrobial agent in Distel? - ammonium chloride

- Antimicrobial ingredients in soap? - Triclosan

- Gram negative cell wall - tails = liposaccharides, purple blocks= peptidoglycan

Commensals

- friendly bacteria that are not pathogenic

- Some Can be pathogenic but can’t enter disease process

- Can be pathogenic if an immune system is weak

- Unfriendly bacteria are pathogens.

Biological entities

- Cellular contain the typical parts of the cells

- Cellular organism include; Eukarya, Archaea and bacteria

-Eukarya cells contain a nucleus

-Bacteria do not contain a nuclear

-Archea cells do not contain a nucleus however contain a different cell wall from bacteria

- Acellular products contain no cellular material.

- Acellular organisms include: Viruses, viroids, virusoids and prions.

- Viruses: non-living and parasitic require hosts and resources to reproduce.

- Prions: misfolded proteins and do not reproduce.

Taxonomic ranks

- Phenotype: Organisms observable characteristics or traits eg (morphology, biochemical

or physiological properties)

- Serotype: distinct variation in cells surface antigens within a species or bacteria.

- Genotype: the genetic makeup of a cell.

Microbiology Labs 1-3:

Biosafety

- category 1: Minimal levels of hazard to self or environment (e.coli)

- Category 2: can cause human disease and can be hazardous to environment (staph)

- Category 3: can cause severe damage and severely hazardous to the environment.

- Category 4: Causes severe human disease (Ebola)

Bacterial cell wall

- All bacteria have a cell wall (peptidoglycan) which gives shape and protects cells from osmosis lysis.

1. Gram positive cells: have a single plasma membrane

2. Gram negative cells: have two plasma membranes

Bacterial growth

- Lag phase- no immediate increase in cell number, old cells are depleted

- Log phase- growth and division at maximum possible rate given genetic potential and environmental condition,

regular doubling time

- Stationary phase- Nutrients depleted and waste products build up

- Death phase- severe nutrient deprivation

Types of contamination - chemical

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Oral Defence by beso - Labs Topic 1: Microbiology Lab 1 - 3

Petri dish : Marked on the base
Initials, experiment, date.
Pipette: yellow tips- small volumes
Blue tips- larger volumes
Active antimicrobial agent in Distel? - ammonium chloride
Antimicrobial ingredients in soap? - Triclosan
Gram negative cell wall - tails = liposaccharides, purple blocks= peptidoglycan Commensals
friendly bacteria that are not pathogenic
Some Can be pathogenic but can’t enter disease process
Can be pathogenic if an immune system is weak
Unfriendly bacteria are pathogens. Biological entities
Cellular contain the typical parts of the cells
Cellular organism include; Eukarya, Archaea and bacteria
Eukarya cells contain a nucleus
Bacteria do not contain a nuclear
Archea cells do not contain a nucleus however contain a different cell wall from bacteria
Acellular products contain no cellular material.
Acellular organisms include: Viruses, viroids, virusoids and prions.
Viruses: non-living and parasitic require hosts and resources to reproduce.
Prions: misfolded proteins and do not reproduce. Taxonomic ranks
Phenotype: Organisms observable characteristics or traits eg (morphology, biochemical or physiological properties)
Serotype: distinct variation in cells surface antigens within a species or bacteria.
Genotype: the genetic makeup of a cell. Microbiology Labs 1-3: Biosafety
category 1: Minimal levels of hazard to self or environment (e.coli)
Category 2: can cause human disease and can be hazardous to environment (staph)
Category 3: can cause severe damage and severely hazardous to the environment.
Category 4: Causes severe human disease (Ebola) Bacterial cell wall
All bacteria have a cell wall (peptidoglycan) which gives shape and protects cells from osmosis lysis.

Gram positive cells: have a single plasma membrane
Gram negative cells: have two plasma membranes Bacterial growth

Lag phase- no immediate increase in cell number, old cells are depleted
Log phase- growth and division at maximum possible rate given genetic potential and environmental condition, regular doubling time
Stationary phase- Nutrients depleted and waste products build up
Death phase- severe nutrient deprivation Types of contamination - chemical

Biological (bacterial, fungal, viral) - Physical Controlling Microbial classification
1. Infection control- washing of hands
2. Disinfection/antisepsis-creaming
3. Sterilization
4. Preservation Aseptic technique: procedure to help prevent contamination from pathogens
Risk of contamination is reduced by: ● Bunsen burner ● Biosafety cabinets ‘ ● Laminar flow cabinets ● Glove box/isolator
Methods of sterilization ● Steam (autoclave) ● Dry heat (oven) ● Filtration ● Gas ● Ionizing radiation

Topic 2: Osmolarity and Tonicity - Osmolarity= measure of osmotic pressure exerted by a solution across a semi- pemrable membrane. - Measure of the amount of solutes in solution. Dependent on number of particles in chem solution. - Expressed as - 1 mole of CaCl2= 1 ca + 2 cl= 3osm/L - Iso-osmotic= osmotic pressure of solution is equal to it surroundings - Hyper-isosmotic= “ is higher than surroundings - Hypo-osmotic= “ is lower than its surroundings - Tonicity= ability of an extracellular solution to make water move into or out of cell by osmosis - - Isotonic= cells are uncharged - Hyper-tonic- lose water and shrink - Hypo-tonic= take on water and swell - Rate of diffusion depends on = temperature and particle size. - Simple diffusion= molecules move across membrane without aid of carrier protein - Facilitate diffusion= when solutes interact with carrier proteins across bilayer, requires no energy. Glucose, chloride - Molarity= number of moles per solution Topic 3: Anatomy of body - Anatomy - structure of body , physiology - how body function works. - Regions of the abdominal cavity: Upper left - right hypochondriac. Mid left- right lumbar. Bottom left- right iliac. Upper right- left hypochondriac. Mid right- left lumbar. Bottom right- left iliac. - Anterior: nearer to the front of the body - Posterior- nearer to back of body - Superior toward the head - Inferior- away from head - Proxima- nearer to attachment of a limb - Distal- farther from attachment of a limb

Because as conc increase there is an increase in response, and we kept constant time to obtain reproducible results. Drugs used= acetyl choline, pilocarpine, histamine, mepyramine Drug response curve for Ach & pilocarpine

Type of x-axis= logarithmic scale. Y axis= linear
Class of drug= ach is full agonist, pilocarpine is partial agonist. Both are cholinergic agonists. Pilocarpine is partial bc it shifts to the right, reduces % response.
EC 50 value of ACh= 1x10-7, EC 50 value of pilocarpine= 1x10-
What type of receptors do ach and pilocarpine acts on guinea pig illeum?
= M3 receptor located in glands.
And Act on Muscarinic receptors=
M1= nerves, M2=heart, M3= glands, M4= CNS,M5=CNS
Nicotinic receptors?= NM(muscle)= skeletal muscle and ft pentamere. NN(nerve)= dentries.
Drug response curve for histamine& mepyramine- histamine is agonist and mep is antagonist
EC50 value of histamine is 2x10-7, histamine response = 25= 2x10-
Type of antagonism in graph? = competitive antagonism bc doesnt affect max response and more histamine is required to overcome mep.
Type of histamine receptor acting?= H1 receptor
Histamine receptors= H1- smooth muscle, H2= gastric mucosa, h3- hetrorecports and autoreceptors, H4- eosinophils

Topic 6: Aorta Lab

Diagram: Why does the physiological solution hit 37 degrees? = to bring it to body temperature, and to measure the force with which the isolated tissue contracts.
Aorta of which animal is used in organ bath experiment?= Rabbit is used for its cost effectiveness and abundance. Rat and rabbit are used to extract aorta from. For illeum guinea pig and rate are used.
What is a psychological salt solution used in the aorta experiment?= krebs salt solution and McEwan solution.
Diagram of organ chamber= carbogen is used to keep the solution in a viable state aeration and to maintain the psychological pH of salt solution.

Drugs used: 1. Phenylephrine= is adrenergic agonist. 2. Sildenafil= inhibitor of phosphodiesterase
1. 1. Acetylcholine= adrenergic agonist. 4.Atropine= cholinergic agonist that inhibits muscarinic receptor.
Why should a tissue be exposed to drug fro long time?= desensitizes and damages tissue.
Phenlephrine drug conc Volume Final batch conc 1x10-6 100 1x10- 1x10-5 100 1x10- 1x10-4 100 1x10- 1x10-3 100 1x10-
What dose of Phenylephrine exert max response?= 1x10-6 M
How many subtypes of adrenergic receptors?= 5 subtypes, alpha1-2 and beta 1-3. Phenylephrine acts on alpha 1.
Alpha receptors= alpha 1 causes contraction and alpha 2 causes inhibition.
Beta receptors= beta 1 is always in the heart causing an increase in contractility. B2 is in the bronchi the opposite causing dilation. B3= main function is lipolysis.
PE Graph= EC 50 value of PE= EC falls on 1x10-7 and 1x10-6. 1x10-4 is max response.
What method used to calculate x and y axis. = x is calculated by log scale and y by linear scale.
VERY IMPORTANT FIGURE= contraction is left side and relaxation right side. Calcium channel blockers. Topic 7: Kidney Workshop ADH: is a hormone responsible for retaining water in the body and to constrict blood vessels. ADH also decreases the volume of urine by increasing the reabsorption of water in the kidneys.

There is a lag time of 10-15 mins bn intake of water becoming obvious. Effect of emotional stress
causes a hormonal effect
Stress increases
No change in chlorine output
Stress increases ADH secretion( Antidiureti hormone) that helps control blood Pressure by acting on the kidneys Effect of mental stress= delayed reduction in urine output which suggests a hormonal adh affect Effect of physical stress (exercise)
causes physiological changes.
Blood will be diverted
Effects blood vessels and heart rate.
Renal artery constricts
Less blood flow to the kidney
Decline in the GFR rate (glomerular filtration rate) What is the Effect of isotonic saline on urine output and chlorine excretion
Drinking isotonic saline does not produce diuresis
Drinking isotonic saline effects osmolarity: dilution of extracellular fluid

Why is 13C-uarea breath test useful for helicobacter pylori= 13Curea results in its conversion by helicobacter to 13co2 which is detectable in expired air in patients who are infected with urease-producing helicobacter.
What type of drug is Lanzoprazole= is a proton pump inhibitor, it decreases the amount of acid produced in the stomach and is used to treat and stomach ulcers. Topic 9: Nervous System

Glutamatergic neuron: is the major excitatory neurotransmitter in the nervous system that is released by nerve cells in the brain
Glutamatergic neurons are responsible for sending signals between nerve cells.
Presynaptic neuron is the neuron that is transmitting the signals
Postsynaptic neuron is the neuron receiving the signals Synaptic integration:
synaptic integration is the term used to describe how neurons add up inputs before the generation of a nerve impulse or action potential.
The synaptic integration process contributes to the powers of the functioning brain. Serotonin receptors
all dopamine receptors are G-coupled. All glutamate receptors are ligand gated or g-protein coupled.
serotonin receptors are activated by the neurotransmitter serotonin which acts as a natural ligand. Serotonin receptors: 5-HT1: Gi/Go-protein coupled 5-HT2: Gq/G11-protein coupled Family: Type 5-HT3: Ligand-gated Na+ and K+ cation channel - depolarizeing plasma membrane. 5-HT4: Gs-protein coupled 5-HT7: Gs-protein coupled 5-HT6: Gs-protein coupled Dopamine neurotransmission vs glutamatergic neuron
Chemical released by neurons to transmit an electric signal between one neuron to thenext. Known as happy hormone.

Enzyme graphs Competitive Antagonism
Agonist: a drug binds to a receptor and activates a biological response.
Antagonist: a binds to receptors but doesn’t activate a biological response
Competitive antagonism- drug binds to same site as agnost but does not activate it Non-comp agonist- binds to allosteric site on the receipt to prevent activation. a receptor. Concentration effect relationship
Most drugs interact with specific receptors, the receptors are responsible for determining the quantitative relationship between the dose or concentration of the drug and the corresponding effect it is usually expressed on a graph.

Michaelis constant kM= is numerically equal to the substrate concentration at which the reaction rate

is half of vMax.

Competitive inhibition= Km increased, vmax unchanged

Non-competitive= km unchanged, vmax decreased

Uncompetitive= km decreased, vmax decreased.

Topic 13: Cardiovascular `Heart is a 4-chambered muscular organ

The heart 4 chambers:

Right ventricle

Right atrium

Left ventricle ( has the thickest layer of myocardium)

Left atrium

Lined by the Endocardium

The right sided pump deals with the pulmonary circulation and gaseous exchange. It receives deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation then pumps it to the lungs for re-oxygenation and co2 removal.
Lower chamber (ventricle) opens into pulmonary artery via pulmonic valve
The left sided pump deals with systemic circulation and o2 and nutrient supply. It receives reoxygenated blood from the lungs, pumps it into systemic circulation for oxygen and nutrient supply
Lower chamber (ventricle) opens into the aorta via an aortic valve Heart wall

Endocardium: innermost thin lining that lines all the chambers of the hearts , permits smooth flow if bliss and prevents clotting.
Myocardium: middle layer composed of cardiac muscles forms the bulk of the heart wall.
Epicardium: protective outer layer of the heart wall and embeds coronary blood vessel. Cardiac cycle
rhythmic pumping action of the heart which is triggered by the spread of the excitation in the heart. There are two different phases that alternate. The systole phase and diastole.
systole phase is the phase of ventricular contraction and emptying.
Diastole phase is the phase of ventricular relaxation and filling. Electrical activity of the heart (ECG)
An ECG contains three distinct waveforms
The P wave: represents the atrial depolarization
The QRS complex: represents ventricular depolarization
The T wave represents ventricular repolarization
P-Q represents the depolarization of Atria
Q-T represents total ventricular activity.

Topic 7: Action Potential and Signalling