Download Limit Tests for Chloride, Sulphate, Iron, and Arsenic in Pharmaceutical Analysis and more Study notes English Language in PDF only on Docsity!
Radiopharmaceuticals: The substance which is capable to emit radiation and use in pharmaceutical and medicinal field are known as radiopharmaceuticals. Radiopharmaceuticals can be used as diagnostic and therapeutic agents. Radiopharmaceutical are two types- Natural, e.g.-Urenium- 2 35, Radium-236 and Artificial, e.g. Cobalt- 60 Radioactivity: Radio activity is a spontaneous and continuous emission of α, β, γ radiation from the substances. There are three main types of radiations: 𝛂 radiations/particles, 𝛃 radiations/particles, 𝛄 radiations. Alpha particles are released by high mass, proton rich unstable nuclei. The alpha particle is a helium nucleus; it consists of two protons and two neutrons. It contains no electrons to balance the two positively charged protons. Alpha particles are therefore positively charged particles moving at high speeds. Beta particles are emitted by neutron rich unstable nuclei. Beta particles are high energy electrons. These electrons are not electrons from the electron shells around the nucleus, but are generated when a neutron in the nucleus splits to form a proton and an accompanying electron. Beta particles are negatively charged. Gamma rays are electromagnetic waves of very short wavelength and high frequency. Gamma rays are emitted by most radioactive sources along with alpha or beta particles. After alpha or beta emission the remaining nucleus may still be in an excited energy state. By releasing a gamma photon it reduces to a lower energy state. Gamma rays have no electrical charge associated with them. Biological effects of 𝛂 , 𝛃 , 𝛄 radiations: The effects of radiation on living matter are called biological effects. a. Ionization and excitation: #Radiations cause abnormal chemical effects such as inactivation of essential enzymes, coagulation of proteins. #Ionization of nuclei acid like DNA and RNA damages the sale. b. Skin damage : When is skin is exposed to radiation it may cause: £Reddening of skin. #Blackening of skin. #Loss of hair. #Dryness of skin. #Burning of skin. c. Sometic effects: Effects of radiations on blood cells are called somatic effects. These include-#Anaemia, #Leukaemia, #Cancer-*Somatic effects are observed after many years from exposure. *The cancer is observed generally after 20 years from exposure. d. Genetic effects: Genetic defects are: #Damage to chromosomes, #Change in frequency of gene mutation, #Due to genetic effects, abnormal effects are observed in future generation. Use of radioisotopes/radiopharmaceuticals/radio isotopic formulation : *In medicine for therapeutic and diagnostic purpose. *In research for study of metabolic processes. *For synthesis of several compounds. Use of some radioisotopes/ radiopharmaceuticals: *Calcium(Ca44 & Ca45): It is used to study bone structure and in treatment of bone cancer. Cobalt(Co60): It is used for sterilization of surgical dressings. Cyanocobalamin(Co57): It is used in the diagnosis of pernicious anaemia. Gold(Au198): It is used in the treatment of cancer.
Iodine: It is used to study thyroid uptake. Hydrogen(H1 & H2): It is used to determine total body water. Oxygen(O17 & O18): It is used in the study of photosynthesis. Sodium(Na22 & Na24): It is used for the estimation of extracellular fluid. Iron(Fe55 & Fe59): It is used for the measuring lifespan of RBCs. Carbon(C14): It is used for metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. GM counter (Gaiger Muller counter) Construction and working: #It consists of stainless steel or glass cylinder coated with silver on the inner side which acts as a cathode.#A fine metal wire is mounted coaxially inside the cylinder which acts as an anode. #The cylinder is filled with argon gas. Radiatios enter through the window. #Due to radiations, argon gas is ionized. #High voltage (800-1300 V) is maintained between the electrodes. #Due to ionization of argon gas, positively charged ions are attracted towards cathode and negatively charged ions are attracted towards anode. #The passage of these ions through the tube constitutes flow of current. #Each particle of radiation causes a brief flow of current which is recorded by a device known as "scalar". #Scalar shows total number of pulses and results are analysed. Radiopaque contrast media (X-Ray contrast media): The substances which have a capacity to prevent passage of X-rays and hence are opaque on X-Ray examination are called radiopaque use substances. The medium which gives this type of phenomenon is called radiopaque contrast medium. Radiopaque substances are administered by oral route and very really by IV route. Ideal properties requirements of radiopaque substances: #It prevent the passage of x-rays. #It should have an adequate radio capacity. #It should be stable. #It should have high solubility. It should be non toxic. #It should be chemically and physiological inert. #It should be easily excreted from the body. #It should have a capacity to accumulate at desired site for desired time. Limit Test: Limit test is defined as quantitative or semi quantitative test designed to identify and control small quantities of impurity which is likely to be present in the substance. Limit test for Chloride: Principle: Limit test of chloride is based on the reaction of soluble chloride with silver nitrate in presence of dilute nitric acid to form silver chloride, which appears as solid particles (Opalescence) in the solution. Procedure: Test sample Standard compound Specific weight of compound is dissolved in water or solution is prepared as directed in the pharmacopoeia and transferred in Nessler cylinder Take 1ml of 0.05845 % W/V solution of sodium chlor cylinder Add 1ml of nitric acid Add 1ml of nitric acid Dilute to 50ml in Nessler cylinder Dilute to 50ml in Nessler cylinder Add 1ml of AgNO 3 solution Add 1ml of AgNO 3 solution Keep aside for 5 min Keep aside for 5 min Observe the Opalescence/Turbidity Observe the Opalescence/Turbidity Observation: The opalescence produce in sample solution should not be greater than standard solution. If opalescence produces in sample solution is less than the standard solution, the sample will pass the limit test of chloride and visa versa. Reasons: Nitric acid is added in the limit test of chloride to make solution acidic and helps silver chloride precipitate to make solution turbid at the end of process.
potassium iodide, stannous acid, zinc, hydrochloric acid, etc. Arsenious acid is further reduced to arsine (gas) by hydrogen and reacts with mercuric chloride paper to give a yellow stain. The depth of yellow stain on mercuric chloride paper will depend upon the quality of arsenic present in the sample. Procedure: Test solution: The test solution is prepared by dissolving specific amount in water and stannated HCl (arsenic free) and kept in a wide mouthed bottle. To this solution 1 gm of KI, 5 ml of stannous chloride acid solution and 10 gm of zinc is added (all this reagents must be arsenic free) Keep the solution aside for 40 min and stain obtained on mercuric chloride paper is compared with standard solution. Standard solution: A known quantity of dilute arsenic solution is kept in wide mouthed bottle and rest procedure is followed as described in test solution. A ： approximately 60 ml generator bottle with 40 ml indicating line. B ： glass tube with 6.5 mm inner diameter C and D ： a ground joint glass tube with 6.5 mm inner diameter and 18 mm outer diameter at the joint. Inner joint and the outer joint form a concentric circle. E ： rubber stopper F ： narrow part of the glass tube B. Glass wool is inserted up to this part. G ： rubber board (Lead acetate cotton plug) H ： clamp Reasons: Stannous chloride is used for complete evolution of arsine Zinc, potassium iodide and stannous chloride is used as a reducing aget Hydrochlorid acid is used to make the solution acidic Lead acetate pledger or papers are used to trap any hydrogen sulphide which may be evolved along with arsine. Antacids: The substances which neutralize the abnormal or excessive acidity in stomach are called antacids. **Uses of antacid: *** Antacids neutralize (reduce) excess stomach acid to relieve heartburn, sour stomach, acid indigestion, and stomach upset. *They can also be used to relieve the pain of stomach and duodenal ulcers. *Some antacids contain simethicone, which reduces gas. Some antacids contain magnesium or sodium bicarbonate, which can act like a laxative. Different type antacids use in pharmaceutical preparation: Water soluble (systematic) antacids: Systemic antacids are absorbed into the systemic circulation. # They have a cationic group that does not form insoluble basic compounds with HCO3–. # Thus the HCO3– can be absorbed producing a metabolic alkalosis. Example-Sodium bicarbonate. Water insoluble (non systematic) antacids:# Non-systemic antacids are compounds that are not absorbed into the systemic circulation. # Their anionic group neutralizes the H+ ions in gastric acid. This releases their cationic group which combines with HCO3– from the pancreas to form an insoluble basic compound that is excreted in feces. # Thus these agents do not produce metabolic alkalosis. Example Aluminum hydroxide gel, calcium carbonate, magnesium trisilicate, magnesium carbonate. Combination of antacid preparations:
#There is no single antacid which is ideal. Therefore combinations of antacids are used which reduce side effects and give more benefits. #Antacid when given singly produces following complications: *Sodium bicarbonate is quick acting but is side effect is systematic alkalosis. #Sodium containing antacids may produce hypertension. *Magnesium compounds are contraindicated in patients with renal disorders. *Calcium compounds are contraindicated in patients suffering from renal and cardiac disorders. *Aluminium compounds should not be prescribed in patients having hypophosphatemia. *Aluminium and calcium compounds produce constipation. *Magnesium compounds may laxative action. #Combination of antacid is used because: *Combination reduces constipation effects of antacids. *Combination reduces laxative action. *Some combinations produce specific action and are used for specific purpose. *Combination also reduces the dose of drug required to produce action. #Examples: *Calcium carbonate + aluminium hydroxide gel, *calcium carbonate + magnesium trisilicate, *magnesium trisilicate + aluminium hydroxide. Quality Control: It is the day-to-day process of controlling quality of every incoming material till the finished product quality. Different methods used for quality control: Quality control is to analyse a drug for quality and quantity. Following are the various methods used for quality control. Topical agents: The agent which are applied on the skin or mucous membrane for their local effects are called topical agents. Classification of topical agents with examples: #On the basis of chemical origin: *Organic topical agents, e.g. zinc stearate providone iodine. *Inorganic topical agents, e.g. talc, zinc oxide, calamine. #On the basis of action drugs: *Protectives and adsorbents, zinc oxide, talc. *Antimicrobial agents, e.g. potassium permanganate, silver nitrate. *Astringents, e.g. alum, zinc sulphate. *Miscellaneous compounds, e.g. sulphur and its derivatives. Gastrointestinal agents: The drugs which are used in the treatment of various gastrointestinal disorder are called GIT agents. Acidifying agents: The substances which increase the level of acid in the stomach are called acidifying agents, e.g. dilute HCl. Saline cathartics/purgatives : The drugs which increase the removal of materials from the intestine are called saline cathartics, e.g. magnesium sulphate sodium sulphate, Anticaries agent: The agents which are used in the treatment of dental caries are called anticaries agent.Anticaries agents are fluorides, phosphates and ammoniated compounds. For example - sodium fluoride, stannous fluoride.
the surface of the body. Bismuth compounds as a protective: Bismuth subcarbonate, Bismuth subnitrate, *Bismuth subgallate, *Milk of bismuth. Buffer solutions: The solutions which resist the changes in pH upon the addition of small amount of acid or alkali are called buffer solutions. Classification of buffers: Acidic buffer: It is a combination of weak acids and is corresponding salt, e.g. mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate. Basic buffer : It is a combination of weak base and its corresponding salt, e.g. mixture of ammonium hydroxide and ammonium chloride. Neutral buffer: It is a single substance showing the properties of buffer, e.g. ammonium acetate. Arrhenious concept: Lewis concept
Brosted-Lowery concept:
*Respiratory mechanism: The important pH control is through the control of "respiratory centre". When this centre is stimulated it alters the rate of breathing. The removal of carbon dioxide from the body fluids leads to the changes in pH of blood carbonic acid. *Renal mechanism: Kidney helps to maintain normal pH by elimination of some ions through urine. Kidney has an ability to form ammonia which reacts with acid formed during protein metabolism and the pH of urine is acidic. If anyone of this mechanism is not functioning properly metabolic/respiratory acidosis or alkalosis may occur. Radiopharmaceuticalswhich emits gama rays for cancer:Cobalt therapy is the medical use of gamma rays from the radioisotope cobalt- 60 to treat conditions such as cancer. Beginning in the 1950s, cobalt- 60 was widely used in external beam radiotherapy (teletherapy) machines, which produced a beam of gamma rays which was directed into the patient's body to kill tumor tissue. Barium sulphate works as contrast media: Barium sulfate is used to help doctors examine the esophagus (tube that connects the mouth and stomach), stomach, and intestine using x-rays or computed tomography (CAT scan, CT scan; a type of body scan that uses a computer to put together x-ray images to create cross-sectional or three dimensional pictures of the inside of the body). Although barium Sulphate do not have highest atomic number but it is most easily incorporated into molecules exhibiting relativity low toxicity. Barium sulfate is in a class of medications called radiopaque contrast media. It works by coating the esophagus, stomach, or intestine with a material that is not absorbed into the body so that diseased or damaged areas can be clearly seen by x-ray examination or CT scan. Emesis:Emesis is a medical term that means vomiting. Vomiting is when contents in your stomach come up and exit through your mouth. It is usually accompanied by nausea. Nausea is the feeling of having an upset stomach, and generally occurs before the actual vomiting. Tartar emetic: Tartar metic , Antimony potassium tartrate has the formula K 2 Sb 2 (C 4 H 2 O 6 ) 2 and is the poisonous efflorescent crystalline salt double salt of potassium and antimony of tartaric acid. It is used in the treatment of schistosomiasis and leishmaniasis. pH: pH is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration, a measure of the acidity or alkalinityof a solution. The pH scale usually ranges from 0 to 14. Aqueous solutions at 25°C with a pH less than 7 are acidic, while those with a pH greater than 7 are basic or alkaline. HCL as buffer: HCL acid on it’s own cannot act as a buffer because it is a strong acid and dissociates completely in aqueous solution.However, hydrochloric acid can produce a buffer solution when mixed in the right proportions with the salt of a weak acid. For example, with excess sodium acetate, hydrochloric acid produces a solution containing acetate ion and acetic acid in equilibrium, which results in an acetate buffer How antioxidants attack free radicals: The human body is made up of substances like proteins, fats and DNA, which are basically just large molecules with dozens, hundreds or thousands of atoms joined together This is an image of a fatty acid molecule. Each ball represents an atom: Humans and other organisms maintain their structure and function by chemical reactions. All the chemical reactions needed to sustain life are collectively known as metabolism. In these chemical reactions, bigger molecules are broken down into smaller molecules, and smaller molecules are organized into bigger molecules. In order for a molecule to be stable, it must contain the right amount of electrons. If the molecule loses an electron when it isn't supposed to, it can turn into a free radical. Free radicals are unstable, electrically charged molecules in the cells, that can react with other molecules (like DNA) and damage them. They can even form chain reactions, where the molecules they damage also turn into free radicals. This is where antioxidants come in... if a molecule loses an electron and turns into a free radical, the antioxidant molecule steps in and "gives" the free radical an electron, effectively neutralizing it. Topical agents: The agent which are applied on the skin or mucous membrane for their local effects are called topical agents. #Classification of topical agents: *Organic topical agents, e.g. zinc stearate providone iodine. *Inorganic topical agents, e.g. talc, zinc oxide, calamine. On the basis of chemical origin: #On the basis of action drugs: *Protectives and adsorbents, zinc oxide, talc. *Antimicrobial agents, e.g. potassium permanganate, silver nitrate. *Astringents, e.g. alum, zinc sulphate. *Miscellaneous compounds, e.g. sulphur and its derivatives.
Kaolin: Synonym: China clay. Properties:*White, odourless, tasteless powder. *Insoluble in water, dilute alkali and acids. *Available in two forms- heavy and light kaolin. Impure forms of kaolin contain gritty particles. Storage: it is stored in well closed containers. Incompatibility: With vitamins, enzymes and alkaloids. Uses:In treatment of dysentery and diarrhoea. *In treatment of alkaloidal poisoning. *In treatment of cholera. *In food poisoning cases. *In dusting powders. *In cosmetic preparations. *As a main ingredient of kavalan pallu poultice. Boric Acid Synonym: Orthoboric acid, acidum boricum Formula: 𝐻 3 𝐵𝑂 3 Properties: (i) It is a white, odourless powder with bitter taste. (ii) It is soapy to touch. (iii) Soluble in hot water and freely soluble in glycerine. (iv) Solution is isotonic with body fluids Storage: It should be stored in well closed container. Label should indicate—“It should not be taken internally.” & “It should not be applied on broken skin.” Incompatibility: It is incompatible with tannins. Uses: (i) Externally for irrigation of organs. (ii) Cleaning of wounds. (iii) Mild antiseptic. (iv) In dusting powder. (v) Ingredient of mouth wash and eye wash. (vi) Buffer in ophthalmic preparation. Strong Ammonium Hydroxide Synonym: Strong ammonia solution, liquor ammonia fortis. Formula: 𝑁𝐻 4 OH Properties: (i) It is a colourless liquid with pungent odour. (ii) Alkaline in taste. (iii) Miscible with water. (iv) Reacts with metal to form nitrogen gas. Storage: It should be stored in a tightly closed container in cool place. Label should indicate—“Hanlde with care.”, “Do not taste.” & “Avoid inhalation of vapours.” Uses: (i) As a source of ammonia. (ii) Antacid. (iii) Counterirritant and respiratory stimulant. (iv) As a fertilizer. (v) In preparations of aromatic spirit of ammonia. (vi) As a laboratory reagent. Hydrochloric Acid Synonym: Muriatic acid, Spirits of salt Formula: HCL Properties: (i) It is clear colourless liquid with pungent(irritating). (ii) Acid in taste. (iii) Miscible with water. (iv) Reacts with metal to form chloride of the metal. Storage: Well closed glass container at a temperature not exceeding 300 C Uses: (i) As pharmaceutical aid (Acidifying agent). (ii) As solvent. (iii) As a laboratory reagent. (iv) Fertilizer production, gelatin production. Sodium Chloride Synonym: Formula: NaCl Standard: It contains not less than 99.5% of NaCl. Properties: (i) It is a white crystalline powder. (ii) It is odourless, saline taste (salt) (iii) Freely soluble in water. (iv) It is hygroscopic. Storage: It should be stored in well closed container. Uses: (i)As a source of sodium and chloride. (ii) As electrolyte replenisher. (iii) In bromide and iodide poisoning. (iv) In foods. (v) In kidney failure. (vi) Along with diuretics. (vii) To maintain isotonicity of solutions. (viii) Topically to wounds and body cavities for irrigation. Official preparations/formulations of NaCl: (i) Sodium chloride and mannitol injection IP, USP. (ii) Sodium chloride hypertonic solution injection IP, BP. (iii) Compound NaCl injection IP, BP, USP. (iv) Normal saline solution IP, BP. (v) Dextrose and normal saline solution IP, BP. (vi) Sodium chloride eye lotion BP. (vii) Sodium chloride tablet IP. (viii) Compound NaCl and dextrose solution BP. (ix) Bacteriostatic sodium chloride injection USP. (x) Compound NaCl and dextrose powder BP. (xi) Ringer’s injection USP. (xi) Mannitol and sodium chloride injection. (xii) Fructose and sodium chloride injection, NF. (xii) Lactated Ringer’s injection. Category: Systematic alkalizer, electrolyte replenisher. Deficiency of sodium chloride is known as “salt hunger”. Stannous Fluoride Formula: 𝑆𝑛𝐹 2
Barium sulphate: Formula: Synonym: Barium meal, Shadow meal. Preparations: It is prepared by precipitation of Barium ions from cool and dilute solution of Barium salt with dilute sulphuric acid. The preparation is washed and dried. Properties: It is a fine, white, tasteless, odourless and bulky powder. It is insoluble in water. It is not absorbed from GIT. It is soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid. Actions and uses: use For x-ray examination of alimentary canal. Orally or by enema for examination of colon. Used for preparation of Barium sulphate compound powder. Sodium fluoride: Formula: NaF Properties: White, odourless powder with slight bitter taste. Soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. Reacts with ordinary glass. Storage: It should be stored in dark pyrex bottles. Uses: Dental products and anticaries agent. 2% solutions used topically. It is used to treat abnormal development of teeth. Calcium carbonate: Formula: Synonym: limestone, marble. Properties: White, odourless, tasteless microcrystalline powder. It is stable in air. It is dimorphous and two crystal forms. Storage: calcium carbonate is stored in well closed containers. Uses: It is used as an antacid. It is used as a calcium supplement in deficiency status. It is used as a food additive and in homoepathic medicine. Sodium bicarbonate: Formula: Synonym: Baking soda. Properties: White crystalline powder, odourless, saline taste. Soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. Aqueous solution is alkaline. On heating produces carbon dioxide. Storage: Store in well closed containers. Incompatibility: With Mercury salts and acid. Uses: As a antacids. As a carminative. In treatment of crystalluria. In treatment of systematic alkalosis. In poisoning cases. In irrigation of eyes. In effervescent powders and bath soaps. Aluminium hydroxide gel: Synonym: aluminium hydroxide powder, aluminium hydride powder.
Types of physical: Aluminium hydroxide gel. Dried aluminium hydroxide gel Properties of aluminium hydroxide gel: white viscous suspension, small amount of clear liquid separated on standing. Permitted to contain sodium benzoate as preservative. Properties of dried aluminium hydroxide gel: White amorphous powder. Tasteless, odourless. Practically insoluble in water Insurable in ethanol. Soluble in mrinal acid solution. Storage: the gel should not be stored at temperature not exceeding 25 degree Celsius and it should not be allowed to fridge. For the dried gel should not be stored in airtight containers at temperature not exceeding 25 degree Celsius. Uses: gastrointestinal agent. Antacid. As desiccant. Dusting powder. Mild astringent. ORS/ORT: Oral rehydration solution is a type of fluid replacement used to prevent and treat dehydration, especially that due to diarrhoea. Eid involves drinking water with modest amount of sugars and salts. WHO and UNICEF jointly have developed official guidelines for the manufacturing of oral rehydration solution and oral rehydration salts used to make it. Commercial preparations are available as either prepared fluids for packets of oral rehydration salts ready for mixing with water. The formula for the current WHO oral rehydration solution is 2.6 grams salt, 2.9 grams trisodium citrate dihydrate, 1.5 grams potassium chloride, 13.5 grams anhydrous glucose per litre of fluid.
