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Course Code: MPC 003 Assignment Code: MPC 003/ASST/TMA/2022- 2023
Assignment Code: MPC-001/ASST/TMA/2022- 23
1. Describe self-report inventories
A Self-report inventory is a type of psychological test in which a patient fills out a survey or questionaire with or without the help of a mental health professional. Self-report inventories often ask direct questions about symptoms, behaviors, and personality traits associated with one or many mental disorders personality types in order to easily gain insight into a patients personality or illness. Most self-report inventories can be taken or administered within five to 15 minutes, although some, like the MMPI, can take up to three hours to fully complete. self-report inventory is the type of psychological test that is frequently used in personality assessment. Self-report inventories are often accessible in a paper-and-pencil set-up. A characteristic self-report inventory grants a number of questions or statements that may or may not define certain qualities or characteristics of the participant. It is a type of psychological test in which the participant answers a survey or questionnaire with or without the help of a psychologist or any mental health professional. Self-report inventories habitually ask direct questions about personality traits, symptoms, intelligence, behaviors, etc. associated with one or more than one mental disorders personality types to effortlessly achieve insight into the participant’s personality or illness. Even there are self-report inventories that can be administered within ten to fifteen minutes, while some other self-report inventories, like the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI), can take up to three hours to finish answering. The term self-report inventory characteristically denotes an organized set of written questions, which are arranged reliably and ask the respondents to assess themselves in yes or no, agree or disagree, true or false, 3always, sometimes or never, or a rating scale format. Sporadically, self-report inventories include open-ended questions also. Personality Inventories Self-report personality inventories contain questions dealing with behaviors, feelings, responses to certain situations, distinguishing thoughts and beliefs, habits, etc. The participants are habitually asked to specify how finely each item in the inventory defines the participant themselves or how much they approve of each item. The format of the inventories may be diverse. The format of the responses also differs among the inventories. The response may include yes or no to five-point Likert scales to even seven-point Likert scales. Self-report inventories frequently encompass translucent questions, which means that the participants can figure out what a psychologist needs to measure. So, subjects or participants can lie deliberately and counterfeit personality traits the participants do not possess. Researchers who improve and develop psychological tests usually handle these types of problems by including lie scales in the tests, which offer information about the probability that a participant is lying. There are chances for social desirability bias to affect the retorts on self-report inventories. This is very common among people while filling up an inventory. While reading the items in the questionnaire itself the participant might manipulate the responses by responding in such a way by stating what they wish were true, rather than what is the real truth. Test developers can minimalize the social desirability bias by avoiding questions in the inventories that are probable to induce it. Participants occasionally do not understand the questions asked or the situation mentioned on the test. Test developers usually try addressing this issue by phrasing questions or the items in the inventories very clearly so that the participants will have only one conceivable interpretation. Another
problem with self-report inventories is that the participants at times don’t remember the characteristics of the experience that they are asked about. This also influences the response of all types of inventories including personality inventories. Strengths and Weaknesses of Self-Report Inventories Self-report inventories are habitually one of the best options to go for when researchers need to administer a very large number of tests in a comparatively very short period of time. There are many self-report inventories that can be finished within a short time very quickly. Some inventories can be answered just within ten or fifteen minutes but some inventories take hours to complete. Inventories that take less time are always an affordable option for scholars who face problems with really with budgets. Though, self-report inventories do have their disadvantages they also have their own advantages. Studies indicate that people are capable to exercise ruse while taking self-report tests. Another disadvantage of self-report inventories is that some tests are very long, time-consuming, and also tiresome. For instance, the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory or MMPI takes around three hours to complete. As it is time-consuming there are chances for the respondents of the test to lose interest and that can lead to not answering the questions exactly. Furthermore, another fact is that people are at times not the best adjudicators of their behavior. There are individuals who try to hide their feelings, attitudes, and thoughts and they may be unaware of it. The MMPI- 2 One among the most well-known self-report inventory is the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory shortly known as MMPI. It is a personality test and was first available in the 1940s. It was later revised in the 1980s and today it is known as the MMPI-2. The test encompasses more than 500 statements that measure a wide-ranging variety of topics comprising interpersonal relationships, psychological health, political health, and abnormal behaviors, social, sexual, and religious attitudes. The 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire
despite the time investment. The MMPI-3, for instance, covers every spectrum of psychopathology, such as internalizing, thought disorder, externalizing, and somatization (e.g., Sellbom et al., 2021), which would be impossible to cover in a 50-min clinical interview. Moreover, these multi-scale inventories, as mentioned earlier, have validity scales to assess for response bias that generalizes to the whole assessment, and can be particularly useful in contexts in which individuals have an external incentive to misrepresent themselves. Lee et al. (2022) provide a comprehensive review of the most common multi-scale inventories, including their strengths and limitations. Multi-scale self-report inventories of clinical symptoms and personality (such as the MMPI-2 and the PAI) represent the most traditional approach to clinical assessment of personality, and have the advantages of encompassing of a broad scope of symptoms and personality traits, controlling for patient response styles, and being relatively unaffected by examiner biases. However, these measures cannot eliminate the effect of clinical states (e.g., anxiety, depression) on trait scores and were not developed to fully align with the DSM categorical model for PD or the AMPD criteria. Multi- scale self-report measures of personality trait domains (such as the NEO Personality Inventory, Personality Inventory for DSM5, and the Severity Indices of Personality Problems) were specifically developed to evaluate Five-Factor Model (FFM) traits or core domains of personality pathology and are closely aligned with the AMPD model in the DSM. The NEO-PI-R objectively captures the personality traits of Openness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism, as well as six constituent facets that make up each personality trait (NEO-PI-R; Costa and McCrae, 1992) and is appropriate for measuring personality in older adults (McCrae et al., 2005b; McIlveen et al., 2013). Preliminary studies suggest satisfactory psychometrics in older adult samples with respect to the assessment of overall severity of core features of PD using the SIPP-SF (van Reijswoud et al., 2020) and of higher-order domains of personality pathology using the PID-5 (Debast et al., 2017). However, issues regarding the age-neutrality of these measures as well as their validity for older adults merits further research.
2. Explain behavioural assessment techniques and their weaknesses.
Behavioral assessment is a structured study and analysis of a person’s behavior using various methods like interviews, direct supervision, and self-observation. It refers to the process of observing, explaining, and predicting human behavior with the help of new-age digital tools. Behavioral assessments are now more commonly used in educational, clinical and corporate settings. Behavioral assessments are generally used for recruitment and development purposes to assess core competencies required to perform the organization’s job. Behavioral assessments require candidates to exhibit behavioral competencies in one or more tasks related to their work responsibility and mimic an actual workplace situation. The behavioral evaluation occurs when candidates are provided with a series of simulated work environments with probable actions to be taken. They have to tick either the best option or grade the possible activities based on their effectiveness. Behavioral tests evaluate behavioral competencies. Behavioral competencies comprise knowledge, skills, and personality traits in an individual. Such competencies are critical elements of a job that are evident in the workplace’s behavior and observable. Behavioral competencies vary across job roles and levels. Each behavioral competency can be gauged through a unique combination of behavioral tests, the outcomes of which can work wonders when it comes to workforce planning. In the corporate context, behavioral assessments refer to new-age tools to measure behavioral competencies in a simulated work environment. These assessments require individuals to demonstrate behavioral competencies in one or more activities relevant to their job role and resemble an actual organizational situation. Candidates are presented with a series of realistic work- related scenarios with possible actions to be taken. They have to select either the best option or rank the possible actions based on their effectiveness. Behavioral assessments are commonly used for recruitment and development initiatives to measure critical competencies required to perform on the job. Behavioral tests measure behavioral competencies. The combination of skills, knowledge and traits in an individual cumulatively form behavioral competencies. Behavioral competencies are a job’s components that reflect in behavior and are observable in the workplace. Behavioral competencies often vary across job levels and job roles. Having a comprehensive list of behavioral competencies that are important to your organization’s culture can help you to choose and combine the right types of behavioral assessment tests for better workforce planning. The workplace is continually evolving, and the ongoing pandemic has fastened its pace. Most employees are finding it challenging to remain motivated or manage their stress levels, which affects their productivity. Conversely, some employees have performed exceedingly well by demonstrating an exceptional drive to ensure growth. Imagine being a manager of a remote team during the early days of the lockdown. Your team needs a more streamlined process to accomplish specific tasks. Having a fair idea of who has the propensity to lead can help you push the right team member to take the initiative. Behavioral assessment methods help recognize the ‘how’ and ‘what’ behind a behavior, enabling you to hire the right candidates, develop the right employees and make informed decisions about your organization’s future leaders. Behavioral evaluations are outcome-oriented and match an individual’s behavioral tendencies with job demands, leading to extended associations and contented employees.
How to Conduct A Behavioral Assessment? Different types of behavioral assessments represent a variety of frameworks to assess key behavioral competencies. These competencies can help employers determine the behavioral strengths of prospective employees. Behavioral assessments are crucial tools that employers use to identify and select candidates whose behavior, skills, knowledge, abilities, values, and ethics align with the company culture. Behavioral assessment tests can measure a plethora of behavioral tendencies. They include result orientation, teamwork, conflict management, establishing trust and work delegation, etc. A behavioral test probes specific behavioral dispositions with an understanding that behaviors can change easily. Behavior is adaptable and can be observed, meaning it responds and changes according to an external environment. Here is how organizations can use behavioral tests in their hiring and L&D processes: Competency-Tool Mapping
Competency-tool mapping involves creating an organization-specific competency framework or using an available framework to identify relevant indicators of behaviors and map them on available tools. Two or more tools are typically combined for a reliable and holistic overview of the test-taker. Competency-tool mapping considers job compatibility with the workplace behaviors required to succeed on the job and in the organization. For instance, caselets can assess business acumen and prompt decision-making, while a case study simulator may better evaluate an analytical and innovative mindset. Tool Creation Tools and questions are created based on specific job functions. They emulate the job’s realities, posing questions that reflect actual workplace situations. Content Validation Content validation is vital to obtain optimal results. Multiple iterations of the content in consultation with subject matter experts and the organization are the best practice to reflect the real essence of the organizational environment.
mission. They need to put the donor’s interest above that of “closing a deal.” So, if the initial profile the committee puts together is inaccurate, the assessment will point them to the wrong people and eliminate great candidates.
- Compensate for weakness. Many individuals have learned to offset weak behavior traits by “stretching themselves.” For instance, introverts can be successful fundraising staff by extending their people skills and mastering techniques to truly connect with donor needs. (For example, in Planned Gift fundraising, individuals must connect with older people one-on-one over a period of years). Most assessments do not reflect this “stretching” or compensating that people have done. The candidates show up as “not a fit” and are purged even though they have had success performing similar positions.
- No Perfect Candidates. All of us have strengths and weaknesses. I have found that the search committees tend to focus on potential weaknesses revealed by the assessment. I have even seen a search committee eliminate all presented candidates because there were “potential” weaknesses with each candidate.
- We are in favor of tools that provide good data on nonprofit candidates. Assessments can provide useful information. However, it takes an advanced committee combined with a skilled facilitator to use them successfully. They should be used with caution to avoid eliminating great candidates.
3. Explain Eysenck’s trait-type theory.
Hans Jürgen Eysenck was born March 4, 1916 in Berlin, Germany. In 1940, he received his Ph.D. in Psychology from the University of London. In addition to 75 books, he has authored more than 700 articles. Despite retiring in 1983, he continued writing until his death on September 4, 1997. The most cited living psychologist before he passed away in 1997, he was also the third most cited psychologist of all time after Freud and Piaget. Eysenck developed a very influential theory of personality traits, which has successfully infiltrated the public mindset when it comes to how we think about personality in the contemporary world. Eysenck’s theories are primarily based on physiology and genetics. Despite being a behaviorist who considers learned habits important, he believes that personality differences are a result of our genetics. His primary interest is in what is known as temperament. Eysenck is also a research psychologist. In his analysis, he uses the statistical technique known as factor analysis. The technique identifies a number of dimensions in large amounts of data. Suppose, for instance, you give a large number of people a long list of adjectives and ask them to rate themselves on those, you have the raw material for factor analysis. ASSUMPTIONS OF THE THEORY :
- Much of the personality is genetically determined.
- There’s a biological basis of personality.
- It’s based on factor analysis (study multiple variables and club common variables intactor- advanced statistical technique). HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY: Specific responses to different stimuli become habitual responses over a time period. These different habits become traits that are difficult to modify. These similar traits clubbed become super factor or type of personality (e.g., introversion). Hans Eysenck based his two-factor theory on these ideas. For this, he analyzed the responses people gave to personality questionnaires. As part of the factorial analysis, Eyesenck used statistical data reduction and agglutination. In this case, he used this technique to reduce behaviors to a series of factors with common attributes: the super factors. Each set of factors is grouped under one dimension. According to Eysenck, the three independent dimensions of personality are Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E), and Neuroticism (N), which is why it’s called the PEN model. In his view, these three super factors are adequate descriptors of personality.
- Specific response : sp1, sp2, sp
- Habitual response : H1, H2, H3 •Traits : T1, T2, T
- Super factor/ type of personality Eysenck’s personality theory is considered a true paradigm and the most solid theory that psychology has offered. The theory best explains why each person has their own personality.
behaviors to a series of factors with common attributes: the super factors. Each set of factors is grouped under one dimension. Eysenck identified three independent personality dimensions: Psychoticism (P), Extraversion (E), and Neuroticism (N), which is why it’s called the PEN model. According to him, these three super factors adequately describe personality. The three dimensions of Eysenck’s personality theory Neuroticism (stability-emotional instability) First, Eysenck understands neuroticism as the highest degree of emotional instability. Eysenck uses this dimension to explain why some people are more prone than others to suffer anxiety, hysteria, depression, or obsession. He defines neurotic people as those who react in an exaggerated way more frequently and find it difficult to return to a normal level of emotional activation. At the other extreme of the dimension, there are emotionally stable, calm, reasonable people who have a high degree of self-control. Extraversion (extraversion-introversion) Second, people with higher scores in extraversion have greater traits of sociability, impulsiveness, lack of inhibitions, vitality, optimism, and ingenuity. On the other hand, the more introverted people are generally more tranquil, passive, are less social, and more pessimistic. However, this personality theory considers that the main different between the two factors is physiological. It’s based off of the level of cortical arousal. Psychoticism Third, the level of a person’s psychoticism reflects their vulnerability to impulsiveness, aggressiveness, and a lack of empathy. These people are often insensitive, antisocial, violent, aggressive, and extravagant. If you score high on psychoticism, you may be predisposed to various mental disorders, such as psychosis. Unlike the other two dimensions, psychoticism doesn’t have an opposite or inverse extreme. Instead, psychoticism is present at different levels in everybody. To conclude, personality is one of the most interesting, studied, and essential topics in psychology. Personality is studied in depth with the goal of explaining why a person is they way they are. One of the most important theories in personality psychology is Eysenck’s theory, which has become a cornerstone theory. When Eysenck first created his theory it laid the foundation for the scientific study of personality and human behavior. APPLICATIONS :
- Used in psychometric testing.
- Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) has 90 items in yes/no, used for 60 yrs and above, which measures 3 dimensions (E-I, N, P).
- It has a lie scale (score is above 7 then it’s discarded).
- Recent latest version is EPQ-R.
- It can be used in non-clinical settings as well.
- Junior EPQ (7-15 yrs), 81 items, yes/ no responses format, and the lie scale.
EVALUATIONS :
- It has been supported by sufficient empirical evidence.
- This theory is easy to understand and has a layman appeal.
- Finds application in psychometric testing.
- It’s one of the 1st scientific attempt at providing biological basis of personality.
- It doesn’t cover other important factors like openness to experience etc which is covered by recent theories.
- This theory overemphasis the role of genetics. Personality and Real Life Issues Although Eysenck’s approach to personality focused on group differences and genetics, he was not without concern for the individual and her or his daily life. He also challenged the way in which psychologists are pursuing their discipline, and the effect it has on the public’s view of psychology. In 1972, he published Psychology is About People, which included jokes about psychology and psychiatry, as well as topics as diverse as sex, socialism, education, pornography, and behaviorism (Eysenck, 1972). In Uses and Abuses of Psychology he challenged the stereotypes associated with views on national character, and urged the learning of facts about other cultures (numerous other topics are covered as well; Eysenck, 1953). In Sense and Nonsense in Psychology he examined such things as hypnosis, lie detectors, telepathy, interpreting dreams, and politics. Eysenck wrote extensively about sex and personality, and the role that violence and the media may play in distorting sexuality (e.g., Eysenck, 1976; Eysenck & Nias, 1978). He also wrote about the relationship between personality and criminal behavior (e.g., Eysenck, 1964; Eysenck & Gudjonsson, 1989), and the role that personality and stress play in the lives of people who smoke cigarettes (Eysenck, 1991). Like Cattell, Jensen, and others, Eysenck was very much caught up in the controversy over racial differences in intelligence testing (see, e.g., Eysenck, 1973a,b, 1995; Eysenck & Kamin, 1981; Pearson, 1991). Eysenck, however, offered something for the average person, two books on how to measure your own I.Q. (Eysenck, 1962, 1966). Late in his career, Eysenck offered an interesting reflection on his decision to focus most of his career on differences between people, as opposed to the uniqueness of each person: Gordon Allport and I did not always see eye to eye on theoretical matters. I remember very well him telling me that he thought every psychologist should write his autobiography at the end of his life, to see the unities that emerged in his conduct over a lengthy period of time. This idiographic point of view contrasted very much with my own nomothetic one, and at the time I paid little attention to it. Now, half a life-time later, I can see what he was driving at, and can also see the possible importance of such consistencies of behaviour in one’s own life. (pg. 375; Eysenck, 1986) Eysenck wrote two books that challenged the field of psychology: Uses and Abuses of Psychology and Sense and Nonsense in Psychology. What advantages do you think it has for the field when someone of Eysenck’s stature questions the scientific validity of certain areas of study or certain procedures?
summed scores with each other. The correlation between these sets is termed split- half reliability and reflects the test’s internal consistency. If the composite set of test items is consistently measuring the same underlying personality dimension, then people who score high on odd items should also score high on even items, and people who score low on odd items should also score low on even items (again reflected in a high positive correlation). A third type of reliability is based on the correlation of two versions of the same test (made up of similar items) administered to same group of individuals. If the scores on these different forms are about the same, the test yields reliability of parallel forms. In such a case, the correlation of two parallel forms would indicate that the items on both tests measure the same thing. Lastly, reliability also applies to the degree of agreement between two or more judges in scoring the same assessment test. This is called inter scorer reliability, and must be demonstrated whenever scoring involves subjective interpretations, such as those made by personologists examining projective data. Inter scorer reliability tends to be especially low with qualitative data in general, such as interview conversations, dream reports, and other open ended response formats that are not objectively quantified. But, agreement is increased when judges use manuals with explicit scoring rules and instructions for analysing such data (Yin, 1984). Validity Whether or not a test measures what it is intended to measure or predicts what it is supposed to predict, is known as validity. It is another significant concept in personality assessment. There are three main types of validity: (1) Content validity, (2) Criterion- related validity, (3) Construct validity. To be content valid, an assessment tool must include those items whose contents are representative of the entire domain or dimension it is supposed to measure. For instance, a personality test measuring shyness, should actually reflect the personal (“Is your shyness a major source of personal discomfort?”), Social (“Do you get embarrassed when speaking in front of a large group?”), and cognitive (“Do you believe that others are always judging you?”) aspects of shyness. A content valid test would assess each of these components defining the construct of shyness. Content validity is almost entirely determined by agreement among experts that each item does in fact represent aspects of the variable or attribute being measured. For criterion related validity, personality assessment is commonly undertaken for the purpose of making predictions about specific aspects of an individual’s behaviour. For example, the behavioural criterion being predicted may include academic performance in management school, occupational success. The extent to which a test accurately forecasts some agreed- upon criterion measures determined by correlating subject’s scores on the test with their scores on independently measured criterion. For instance, the criteria is success in management school as measured by management school grade point average (GPA).The Common Aptitude Test would be validated if it accurately predicted the criterion( management school GPA).
5. Explain the classification of projective techniques. Discuss the
strengths and weaknesses of projective techniques.
Projective techniques are a commonly used but highly controversial method of conducting qualitative research. Projective testing techniques were originally developed in the 1960s for use in the field of clinical psychology. In the domain of psychology, they refer to a type of personality test that exposes participants to a series of ambiguous stimuli such as images or words. The purpose of projective tests is to evoke emotional responses from the participant in order to study their attitudes, traits, and behaviour. These tests are expected to reveal an individual’s unconscious desires and apprehensions. Psychologist Daniel Kahneman opined that the human brain makes thousands of decisions every single day. These include small decisions such as what to wear, what to eat, which route to take to work, etc., and more complex decisions such as purchasing a new car or moving to a new city or ending a relationship. If our brain were to process all of these decisions consciously it would become easily overburdened with information. Therefore, several decisions and the motivations that inspire them, are processed in our unconscious mind. People may not always be consciously aware of the unconscious motivations behind their actions. The information gathered from projective testing is used by psychotherapists to gauge the causes of an individual’s mental turmoil and consequently design appropriate interventions. Projective techniques are also popular in conducting market research aimed at understanding consumer behaviour. How do Projective Tests Work? Projective testing involves exposing an examinee to a series of ambiguous stimuli (e.g. an image) and asking them to provide their unique individual responses upon perceiving the stimuli. This is done in order to prevent biases on the part of the examinee. The ambiguity of the stimuli does not give the person any hints as to what an acceptable answer to the question is, which is the case with other structured forms of psychological testing. For example, in interviews or self-reports, individuals tend to provide answers that may be more socially acceptable and may even alter their responses based on how they react to their answers. On the other hand, ambiguous stimuli cause people to reveal their true feelings, which are considered a more reliable measure of their unconscious thoughts and behaviour. Types of Projective Techniques Projective techniques can be divided into five broad categories – Association Techniques – Association techniques are when a participant is required to give instant responses to the stimuli presented to them. There is great emphasis on the immediacy of responses in association techniques. The Rorschach Test is an example of an association technique wherein the subjects respond to a series of inkblot images. These images contain determinants such as colour, shade, form, movement and reflection which help examiners determine the reasons behind individual responses. Their answers are then interpreted and analysed psychologically. The word association technique (WAT) is another kind of association exercise during which the subject is presented with a series of unrelated words. They have to respond to each word with their first thoughts upon hearing them. Cognitive psychologists also use WAT to study how semantic information is stored and retrieved by the mind. Construction Techniques –
Rigorous interviewing and analysis is required to draw conclusions from projective techniques. This, coupled with the need for trained professionals, makes it an extremely expensive process. Projective techniques also come with the risk of interpretation bias. This means that the people interpreting and analysing the responses of the examinees could misinterpret the results and perhaps assume that a benign response is seemingly hostile. Drawing inaccurate inferences from projective tests could seriously harm the examinee because it could point towards personality flaws or shortcomings. Given their complex and unstructured nature, projective testing techniques should be used carefully. They could prove to be especially useful in conducting exploratory research in order to gain initial insights. They are also important in cases where the use of structured methods will not provide professionals with the required information.
6. Define personality. Explain the concept of trait and personal
dispositions.
Personality is the dynamic organisation within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.[ALLPORT,1937,P.48] The term dynamic organisation refers to important points: Not only is personality constantly developing and changing, but there is within the person some kind of central organisation that holds the components of personality together and relates them to each other. The term psychophysical systems implies that person is not just a hypothetical construct formed by the observer but a real phenomenon composed of mind and body elements fused into ‘a personality unity’[Allport,1937,p.48] Characteristics in Allport’definition signifies the uniqueness of the single person. No two people are alike in this personological systems. Finally, behaviour and thought means everything a person does. Personality expresses itself in some way in virtually all observable human actions. While defining personality, Allport clearly makes a distinction between character and temperament. Character means some code of behaviour in terms of which people or their acts are evaluated e.g. a person may be described as having a ‘good’ or’ bad’ character. Temperament refers to those dispositions that are closely linked to biological or physiological determinants. Here, heredity plays an important role,which is the raw material, along with intelligence and physique,out of which personality is made. CONCEPT OF TRAIT AND PERSONAL DISPOSITIONS Allport defines trait as a neuro psychic structure having the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide equivalent (meaningfully consistent) forms of adaptive and expressive behaviour.[Allport, 1961,p.347]
In simpler terms, a trait is a predisposition to act in the same way in a wide range of situations. For example, if a person is basically shy, s/he will tend to be quiet and reserved in many different situations, that is sitting in a class room, eating at the cafeteria, etc. Traits are psychological entities that render many a stimuli as well as many responses functionally equivalent. In other words, many stimuli may evoke the same response, or many responses (feelings, perceptions,interpretations,actions) have the same functional meaning in terms of the trait. Allport [1966] published an article entitled “Traits Revisited” in which he proposed eight basic defining characteristics of trait.They are as follows:
- A trait has more than nominal existence. Personality traits are a very real and vital part of everyone’s existence. Everyone possesses certain ‘generalised action tendencies’. For example, aggressiveness, honesty, etc. These personal characteristics are real and actually exist inside people. To cite an example from real life situation, imagine a person always telling the truth even at the cost of apprehending one’s own intimate friend.
- A trait is more generalised than a habit. Traits account for the relatively permanent and general features of our behaviour. While habits refer to more specific tendencies and are less generalised in terms of the situations which may arouse them or the responses which they evoke. For example a child may brush his teeth twice daily. This is a habit. But over the years the child may learn to brush the hair, wash and iron clothes, clean the room and many such activities which are all learned over a period of time and not necessarily habits. All these habits woven together may form the trait of personal cleanliness.
- A trait is dynamic or at least determinative in behaviour. Traits do not lie dormant waiting to be aroused by external stimuli. Traits motivate people to engage in behaviours that are conducive to expressing their traits. To give an example, a student with high sociable trait does not just sit around and wait to attend parties, but actively seeks out parties so that the sociability trait can be expressed.. Thus, traits guide and direct a person’s actions.
- A trait’s existence may be established empirically. Traits cannot be observed directly, but it is possible to verify their existence. To give an example, repeated actions of the subject, case histories or biographies, or statistical techniques that determine the degree of coherence among separate responses.
- A trait is only relatively independent of other traits. No trait is independent of the other. They overlap. There is no rigid boundary separating one trait from another. The personality is comprised of a network of overlapping traits only relatively independent of one another. 6) A trait is not synonymous with moral or social judgement. Personality is important, not character. Many traits like loyalty, greed, etc. are bound by social demands and socio cultural factors.
- A trait may be viewed in light of either the personality that contains it or its distribution in the population at large. To give an example, take for instance, the trait of shyness which has both unique and universal aspects. It is unique for the person because it influences a person’life, while as the trait can be studied universally by constructing a reliable and valid “shyness scale” and determine how people differ on it. 8) Acts or even habits that are inconsistent with a trait are not proof of the nonexistence of the trait.
