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PAUSANIAS’ACTIONS IN BYZANTION AFTER THE VICTORY AT
PLATAEA : A RECONSIDERATION
( 478-469 B.C )
Muzaffer DEMĐR*
ÖZET
Spartalı general Pausanias’ın emrindeki Hellen Müttefik Donanması M.Ö. 478 yılında Byzantion’u ele geçirir. Thukydides ve onu takip eden antik kaynakların yazarları, Pausanias’ın Atina ve diğer müttefiklere kötü davranması ve Persler’in geleneklerini taklit ederek onlarla işbirliği yapması nedenleriyle, Hellen Đttifakı liderliğinin Byzantion’da Atinalılar’ın eline geçtiğini bildirmektedir. Bu çalışmada ise Pausanias’ın bu tavırlarının liderliğin Spartalılar’dan alınması için bir bahane oluşturduğu öne sürülmektedir. Gerçekte Atina ve Sparta arasında devam etmekte olan Hellas’ın liderliğini ele geçirme mücadelesi belirtilerinin Byzantion’ da kritik bir noktaya ulaştığı, Atina ve diğer müttefiklerin söz konusu kentte Pausanias’a karşı güç kullanarak liderliği ele geçirmiş olmaları büyük bir olasılıktır. Pausanias’ın bunun üzerine bölgedeki nüfuzu hala güçlü olan Perslerle işbirliğine girmek zorunda kaldığı ve böylelikle Byzantion’ da yedi yıl kadar ( M.Ö. 476-469 ) hakimiyetini sürdürdüğü savları güç kazanmaktadır. Bu bağlamda, Sparta’nın M.Ö. 460’ lı yılların başlangıcından itibaren açık bir şekilde Atina’ya karşı Byzantion’a hakim olma mücadelesine girdiği söylenebilir.
ABSTRACT
The Allied Greek fleet captured Byzantion in 478 B.C under the command of Spartan general Pausanias. Thucydides and the ancient historians following him state that the leadership of the Greek Alliance was transferred to Athens in Byzantion because of the facts that Pausanias not only behaved the Athenians and the other allies insolently but also collaborated with the Persians and imitated their customs. However, in this study, we shall put forward that the Athenians and the other allies used Pausanias’ s reactive behaviour against themselves as a pretext to take the leadership away from the Spartans. In fact, it is likely that the signs of ongoing struggle to hold the leadership of Hellas between Athens and Sparta reached a critical level in Byzantion, so the Athenians and the other allies used force to achieve this leadership. Therefore, the assumptions that Pausanias may have been compelled to collaborate with the Persians and thus he was able to rule in Byzantion for seven years ( 476-469 B.C ) owing to the support of Persians strengthen. Within this context, it could be said that, after the early 460 s, Sparta entered into an open conflict against Athens over the control of Byzantion.
Pausanias, nephew of the Spartan King Leonidas, regent for his son,
Pleistarchos, was the victorious Spartan general at Plataea ( 479 B.C ) in the
Persian Wars.^2 After the final victory over Persians, the allied Greek fleet
launched its operations under the command of Pausanias in summer of 478
- Yrd.Doç.Dr. Muğla Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Tarih Bölümü (^2) Herodotus, IX.10.2; 10.60 ff.; Thucydides, I.130.1; Plutarch, Aristides, 17 ff; Diodorus, XI.44.1;
46.2.
Muzaffer DEMĐR
B.C. He first captured part of the island of Cyprus and then Byzantion.^3
Thucydides (460-400 B.C ) gives us the earliest detailed account of Pausanias’
actions in Byzantion as well as in Sparta as a digression in his work when the
Athenians, just before the beginning of the Peloponnesian War demand the
Spartans to remove a curse concerning him.^4 After taking the command in
Byzantion, Pausanias sends a letter to the Persian King, Xerxes as follows:
‘Pausanias, the general of Sparta anxious to do you a favor, sends you these his prisoners of war. I propose also, with your approval, to marry your daughter, and to make Sparta and the rest of Hellas subject to you. I may say that I think I am able to do this, with your co- operation. Accordingly if any of this pleases you, send a safe man to the sea through whom we
may in future conduct our correspondence.’^5
Xerxes was pleased with this letter and replied that he would support
Pausanias the best he could. Upon this:
Pausanias became prouder than ever, and could no longer live in the usual style, but went out of Byzantion in a Median dress, was attended on his march through Thrace by a bodyguard of Medes and Egyptians, kept a Persian table, and was quite unable to contain his intentions, but betrayed by his conduct in trifles what his ambition looked one day to enact on a grander scale. He also made himself difficult of access, and displayed so violent a temper to every one without exception that no one could come near him. Indeed, this was the principal reason
why the confederacy went over to the Athenians. 6
As seen in the above-quoted text, Thucydides claims that the tyrannical
or monarchical conduct of Pausanias against the Athenians and the other allies
in Byzantion constituted the principal reason for the split within the alliance.
Considering that someone, who was the regent king of Spartans and
played a significant role in defeating the Persians at Plataea, could not easily
have shown a reaction against the other allies in Byzantion, the truth in this
official statement of Thucydides needs to be questioned. We propose that there
should have been some underlying reasons for Pausanias’s reaction against the
other allies in Byzantion and his eventual collaboration with the Persians, which
Thucydides does not or needs to state. Since the modern authors do not appear
(^3) Thucydides, I.94; Diodorus, XI.44.2.
(^4) Thucydides, I.128-134.
(^5) Thucydides, I.128.6.
(^6) Thucydides, I.130.1-2. Later ancient writers follow Thucydides in their observations concerning
Pausanias’ arrogance, insolence against the other allies in Byzantion and his imitation of the Persian customs. They similarly state that the allies took side of Athenians because of Pausanias’ treatment with arrogance, harshness, contempt and ill-temper. See Diodorus, XI.44.3-6; Plutarch, Aristides, 23.3-4; Cimon, 6.3; Nepos, Pausanias, 3.1-3; Athenaeus, XII.50, p.536ab. The last two writers only mention his arrogance and imitation of Persian customs. Actually Nepos appears to have used Thucydides as his main source on the life of Pausanias, as he quotes from him. Pausanias, 2.3-5. Both Lycurgus and Demosthenes, fourth century Athenian orators, were also aware of the conduct of Pausanias. Lycurgus, Speech I, section 128 [Against Leocrates]; Demosthenes, Speech LIX, section 96 [Apollodorus Against Neaera].
Muzaffer DEMĐR
to be a truth in his observation.^12 Therefore, the preliminary causes of
Pausanias’ action and the circumstances which had so disposed him need to be
highlighted.
We think that Thucydides’s mental disposition on Pausanias’ insolent
attitude against the other allies in Byzantion seems to be misleading to
understand the real issue of power struggle over the control of Byzantion
between the two leading powers, which appears to have lasted longer. The
changing behavior of Pausanias against the other allies in Byzantion should
primarily be evaluated from a general point of the power struggle going on
between the two leading powers, Athens and Sparta, in Hellas.
As also mentioned in the above-quoted text of Herodotus, it appears
that the signs of dispute between Sparta and Athens over the leadership of
Hellas was already there during the invasion of Hellas by Xerxes,^13 and this
phenomenon continued to exist immediately after the Greek victory at Mycale
(^12) In another passage, Herodotus ( V.32.1 ) states that it was newly appointed Persian general
Megabates “whose daughter, if indeed the tale is true [ei dê alêthês ge esti ho logos], Pausanias the Lacedaemonian, son of Cleombrotus, at a later day betrothed to himself, since it was his wish to possess the sovereignty of Hellas.” This passage leads us to believe that Herodotus has some doubts on the story of Pausanias, though he does not give a full account of Pausanias’ actions in Byzantion. On the other hand, Thucydides ( I.128.7 ) and Diodorus ( XI.44.3 ) only tell that Pausanias offered to marry the daughter of Xerxes. (^13) In spring of 479 B.C, Persian general, Mardonios tried through diplomacy to withdraw the
Athenians from the Greek alliance and the Persian Wars by offering to rebuild their city, give large sums of money and establish them as the masters of Greece. The Athenians threatened to make peace with Persian if no aid came from Spartan. In the end, Spartans resolved to send an army against the Persians in accordance with the demands of Athenians, as they thought that when the Persians and the Athenians allied, they could easily destroy the wall which they recently built across the Isthmus. Herodotus, IX.6-9; Plutarch, Aristides, 10.4-5 ff. Plutarch also states that after the battle of Plataea, the Athenians did not agree to award the prize for valour to the Spartans, or allow them to put up a general trophy. The two sides may even have gone to war to settle their quarrel on this issue. Aristides, 20.1-5. Herodotus ( IX.102.3 ) similarly states that during the battle of Mycale in summer of 479 B.C, the Athenians and the allies wished to make this their own victory, “not to share it with the Lacedaemonians”.
Pausanias’actions In Byzantion After The Victory At Plataea:A Reconsideration
( 478-469 B.C )
as the last battle of Persian Wars in 479 B.C.^14 Pausanias took control of the
Greek fleet in 478 B.C.^15 After he captured Byzantion in the summer in order
to prevent any future Persian advance from this passage between Asia and
Europe, the power struggle between the two leading states appears to have
reached a critical level. Seemingly a movement was started in Byzantion by the
Ionians and those lately freed from the Persian king to transfer the leadership of
the fleet from Sparta to Athens, which evidently led to a clash between
Pausanias, and other Greeks in Byzantion, that is, the Athenians, Chians,
Samians and Lesbians.^16 The Ionian islanders were resentful against the
Spartans and had already inclined to support the Athenians.^17 Plutarch specifies
on this matter by mentioning the commanders of the contingents of Chios,
Samos and Lesbos in particular and also states a chapter in which Uliades of
Samos and Antagoras of Chios with their supporters mutinied at Byzantion
(^14) Plutarch ( Aristides, 22; cf.Themistokles, 20 ) states that Themistokles proposed “to burn the
naval station of the allied Greek fleet [ when it was drawn up on the shore of Pagasae]: in this way Athens would become the most powerful state in Greece and could dominate the rest.” Although this wicked and at the same time profitable proposal was refused by the Assembly, there appears to have been a certain group of people in Athens who bitterly wished to see Athens as the leader of Hellas. At the same time, there was a move in Sparta to make war on Athens to recover the hegemony at sea, though this move was also rejected. Forrest, ibid., 100. After Mycale, in winter of 479 B.C, Greek fleet first sailed to the Hellospont to break up the Persian bridges under the Spartan commander, Leotychidas. Herodotus, IX.106.4; Thucydides, I.89.1-2. Seeing that the bridges had already been destroyed, Leotychidas and the Peloponnesians under him were anxious to sail back to Greece. However, the Athenian fleet remained and laid siege to Sestos, the main focus of the Persian resistance and the strongest and possibly the richest fortress in all that region ( Herodotus, IX.115.1; 116.1-2; Xenophon, Hellenica, IV.8.5; Strabo, XIII.1.22; Strabo,VII fr.56; Ps. Skylax, 67; Polybius, XVI.29. 9 ) and with them were allies from the Hellespont, the Samians, Chians, Lesbians and other islanders. Herodotus, IX.106.7; 114.2, cf.Thucydides, I.89.2. Therefore, we see that the Athenians left the alliance in order to capture Sestos over which they had an ancestral claim, as this city had been settled by the Athenian colonists at the time of Pisistratus. Z.H. Archibald, The Odrysian Kingdom of Thrace: Orpheus Unmasked (Oxford, 1998), 113-114. It appears that Pausanias later on reacted against the same states in Byzantion, which had taken part in the capture of Sestos. (^15) Demosthenes ( LIX, 96-98 ) states that Pausanias was chosen as the supreme commander of
the allied Greek fleet despite the leading role of the Athenians in securing the freedom for Greeks in the Persian Wars and the Athenians did not intend to struggle against the Spartans as rivals “through fear of arousing jealousy among the allies.” (^16) Plutarch, Aristides, 23.4. Also see N.D. Robertson, “The true nature of the Delian League,
478-461 BC”, AJAH 5 (1980 ), 77-78. (^17) Unlike the Spartans, the Athenians had supported them in the Ionian revolt of the early 490s.
Herodotus, V.96 ff. Furthermore, after Mycale the Greeks held a debate at Samos over what was to be done in future. The Spartans, anxious not to be committed to the long-term defense of the Greeks of Asia, even suggested that the Ionians should be transported back to the mainland Greece and resettled. However, the Athenians objected to such a radical action. Herodotus, IX.106.
Pausanias’actions In Byzantion After The Victory At Plataea:A Reconsideration
( 478-469 B.C )
monarchical regime can only have encouraged the Persian support.^23
Pausanias’ foreign connection with Persian king was eventually going
to bring a considerable benefit to himself despite the fact that this made him
vulnerable to attack at Sparta. His position was uncomfortable, as Persia was
still the enemy and anti-Persian feeling must still have been strong among the
Spartans. Despite this, holding Byzantion must also have suited to the interest
of Sparta. After all, Byzantion was a Dorian colony.^24
The reasons which were given by Thucydides for the withdrawal of
Spartan support for Pausanias in Byzantion do not seem to be satisfactory
enough to explain the reluctance of Spartans to struggle over the leadership in
Byzantion.^25 Pausanias must at the same time have realized that his country,
Sparta, was not powerful enough on sea to support himself openly against the
Athenians and her allies.^26 Especially holding a distant city like Byzantion in
hand depended on strength at sea. When Pausanias was called back in 476 B.C
(^23) The Persian King could not be normally expected to form an alliance with Athens while
Athens is a democracy. E.Hall, Inventing the Barbarian ( Oxford, 1989 ), 97-98. During the Peloponnesian War ( 431-405 B.C ), Athens and Sparta were struggling for Persian king’s friendship. However, throughout the war, Spartan diplomacy became more successful with regard to Persia. Especially the Persian military and financial support to the Spartans in the Hellespontine region, helped a great deal to the Spartans in defeating the Athenian navy at Aigospotamoi in 405 B.C. Thucydides, VIII.53.2-3; 68.4; Xenophon, Hellenica, 2.1.13-14; Diodorus, XIII.104.4; Plutarch, Lysander, 9.2. (^24) Byzantion had been established as a Dorian city around 680 B.C and possibly owned a great
deal of Megarian population. Pausanias may have expected their support as well. We know that Megara regretted being involved in the Delian League and they massacred the Athenian garrison in their city around 446 B.C. Thucydides, I.114.1. Xenophon ( Hellenica, 1.1.36 ) states that especially the Megarians helped the Spartans to take Byzantion by manning fifteen ships during the Peloponnesian War, in 410 B.C. A racial split between the Dorians and the Ionians, that is between the descendants of Spartans and those of Athenians appears to have lasted during the fifth century B.C. See Thucydides, I.124.2, using a phrase, “Potidaea, a Dorian city besieged by Ionians”. This split was also seen in the case of Athenian support for the mainland Ionians, as mentioned above ( n.16 ). (^25) Thucydides ( I.95.6-7 ) states that the Spartans sent out Dorcis and certain others with a small
force to Byzantion, but the other allies did not concede to them the supremacy. So, Spartans departed, as, apart from the fear of a similar moral deterioration of a successor to Pausanias, they no longer wanted to get involved in the Median War and were happy with the competency of the Athenians for the position of the leadership of Hellas, and with the Athenian friendship at the time towards themselves. (^26) The Athenians had created the greatest fleet in Greece by 480 B.C. See B. Jordan, The
Athenian Navy in the Classical Period: A study of Athenian Naval Administration and Military Organization in the Fifth and Fourth Centuries B.C. ( London, 1972, 16-21 ). According to Herodotus ( VIII.43.1; 44.1 ), there were 180 Athenian and 16 Spartan triremes in the Greek fleet before the sea-battle of Salamis in 480 B.C. Thus rather than confronting the Athenians for the supremacy at sea, the Spartan government chose to engage in extending her authority on land against the medising states of central and northern Greece, Boiotia and Thessaly and to focus on repairing her unsettled position inside the Peloponnesian League. Forrest, ibid., 99-100.
Muzaffer DEMĐR
because of his alleged insolent conduct against the allies, he did not hesitate to
go back to Sparta in spite of the fact that he could have continued his self-rule
in Byzantion with the support of Persians. He possibly knew that some Spartans
supported his actions as well, even though the Spartan government did not want
to give him an open and official support due to the possibility of a far-spread
war between Athens and Sparta and the anti-Persian atmosphere.
It is interesting that Pausanias was released when he was first recalled
to Sparta. The accusations that he released some Persian prisoners and
oppressed the Greek citizens^27 were not convincing enough to keep him in
prison at Sparta. The unwillingness of the Spartans to sentence him and let him
go privately back to Byzantion again by a private ship^28 after his so-called
acquittal in Sparta could be due to the fact that the Spartans also had tacitly
objected to the idea of transferring the leadership of the Greek alliance to the
Athenians in Byzantion.^29
In fact, the Athenian and Spartan struggle over controlling Byzantion
may have continued for a long time. Within this context, we need to focus on a
passage in Justin.^30 He writes that “for this city (Byzantion ) was first founded
by Pausanias, the king of the Spartans, and it was held ( by him? ) for seven
years. Thereafter it was under the power of the Lacedaemonians or the
Athenians according as either was victorious”.^31
(^27) Thucydides, I.128.5-7, 129.3.
(^28) Thucydides, I.128.2. Actually, a group of people in Sparta would have been happy to see
Pausanias leaving Sparta and ruling in Byzantion out of jealousy of his fame after the victory over the Persians. He was a powerful person in Sparta and after his success at Plataea, in Cyprus as well as in Byzantion, he was capable of becoming even more so and appear to have acted accordingly. Nepos. Pausanias, 1.3 and 2.1-2. It is interesting to see that the other leading commander of the allies, Spartan King, Leotychidas was exiled at about the same time of the first recalling of Pausanias to Sparta in 476 B.C. Herodotus, VI.72 and Forrest, ibid., 100. We see that the people of Athens, after the Persian defeat, wished to ostracise Aristides “disguising their jealousy of his fame under the pretext that they were afraid of tyranny”. Plutarch, Aristides, 7.4. Aristides was ostracized in 482 B.C. However, since the Athenians were alarmed that he might go over to the enemy and seduce many of his fellow-citizens into joining the barbarians, the Athenians called him back and all the exiles in 480 B.C. Plutarch, Aristides, 8.1-2. Similarly the Spartans may have allowed Pausanias to leave Sparta despite the fact that they knew he will have collaborated with the Persians. (^29) Plutarch ( Aristides, 23.1 ) states that “the other Spartans commanders” also behaved to the
Athenians and the other allies the same way as Pausanias after capturing Byzantion. On the other hand, Diodorus ( XI.54.2 ) points out that the Spartans were eager to involve Athens in similar discreditable charges as brought against Pausanias in Byzantion by the other allies. (^30) Justin, Epitoma, IX.1.3, written sometime in the Third century C.E.
(^31) For the English translation of this text, see C.W. Fornara, Archaic times to the end of the
Peloponnesian War: Translated Documents of Greece and Rome ( 2 nd. ed. and trans., Cambridge, 1983 ), no.61, 60.
Muzaffer DEMĐR
Plutarch states that Cimon eventually drove Pausanias out of Byzantion,
possibly in 469 B.C.^38 Pausanias’ final expulsion from Byzantion could be
related to a confusing piece of evidence that Cimon captured Sestos a second
time together with Byzantion in a single campaign.^39 The capture of Sestos
may have taken place right after Cimon took Byzantion from Pausanias in 469
B.C. A great number of Persian prisoners as well as barbarian prisoners fighting
under the command of Persian were taken. The spoils consisted of the rich
jewellery of the Persians. Therefore, during the period of seven years’ rule in
Byzantion, the Persians along with the support of Pausanias appears to have
taken Sestos back as well, as this place was an open target for a Persian attack
from the Asia, where the Persian prevalence continued ( see n.32 ).
The cities, distant from the center of Athens or Sparta, would have
easily changed hands with respect to the balance of power in their region. As
mentioned above, according to Justin, even after the final capture of Byzantion
by Cimon, he says that this city changed hands afterwards whoever became
victorious over it either Spartans or the Athenians.^40
Having been discharged from Byzantion, Pausanias first withdrew to
Colonae in the Troad and then agreed to return to Sparta.^41 He possibly
(^38) Cimon, 6.6. The Athenians and the allies must surely have felt confident enough to overthrow
the rule of Pausanias in Byzantion right after the destruction of Persian navy in Eurymedon under the command of Cimon, which is usually dated to the early 460s, 469 or 466. Powell, ibid., 20. This defeat led to the the prolonged exclusion of the Persian navy from the Aegean. When Justin’s evidence with regard to Pausanias’ seven years’ rule in Byzantion is taken into consideration, we may suggest that Cimon took Byzantion back just after the Eurymedon in 469 B.C. For the date of the expulsion of Pausanias in 460s, see E.M. White, "Some Agiad dates: Pausanias and his sons", JHS 84 ( 1964 ), 140-52; P.J. Rhodes, "Thucydides on Pausanias and Themistocles", Historia 19 (1970 ), 396-7; E. Badian, "Towards a chronology of the Pentekontaetia down to the renewal of the Peace of Callias", Classical News and Views 79 ( ), 300-. (^39) Plutarch, Cimon, 9.
(^40) The Athenians had started to lose support among the cities within the Delian League in the
early 460s, since they started to use the League for their own interests to create their own empire. For the tyrannical character of Athenian Imperialism, see Thucydides, I.24.3; VI.76; Aristophanes, Knights, 1329 ff; cf.Acharnians 6733ff.; Wasps, 1098-1101. Thucydides mentions that after the formation of the Delian League in 478 B.C, this alliance assumed the responsibility of undertaking war against “their own rebel allies, and against the Peloponnesian powers which would come in contact with them on various occasions.” ( I.97.1 ). He also ( I.98.4-99.3 ) tells us the reasons why the allies later wanted to secede from the League. The revolt of Naxos was brutally suppressed by the Athenians in 469/8 B.C. Thucydides, I.98.4. We see that Athens made alliances with Sparta’s enemies, Thessaly and Argos, and encouraged to revive the anti-Spartan feeling around 465 B.C. Forrest, ibid., 102-103. Therefore, under the circumstances of anti- Athenian feeling in the early 460s, the Spartans could easily have taken an open action against the Athenians in order to hold Byzantion. (^41) Thucydides, I.131.1.
Pausanias’actions In Byzantion After The Victory At Plataea:A Reconsideration
( 478-469 B.C )
believed that the Spartan government was not going to charge him on Medism.
Although first put into prison, and he was afterwards released without any clear
reason. The Spartans insisted on finding an indisputable evidence on the charge
of Medism.^42 Actually the real cause of charging such a prominent man in the
end may result from the fact that he was unhappy with the established
constitution and aimed at tyranny by planning a Helot insurrection in Sparta
against the ephoralty.^43 It is possible that he was finally convicted for this
charge, took refuge in the temple of Athena of the Brazen House, and starved to
death in there.^44
CONCLUSION
There was an ongoing struggle between Athens and Sparta over the
leadership of Hellas. Although Thucydides states that Pausanias was called
back from Byzantion to Sparta twice and tried on the grounds of his
unwarranted behaviors, he may have been compelled to react against Athens
and the other allies in Byzantion and consequently to take the support of the
Persians when he felt that the Athenians and her allies had had the intention of
taking both the leadership of Greek Alliance and Byzantion from his hands. In
the face of Athenian naval supremacy and anti-Persian feelings right after the
Persian Wars, Sparta could not have directly supported Pausanias’ actions,
though winked at his actions. Not having the open support of Sparta, Pausanias
appears to have taken Byzantion back and continued his rule over there for
seven years with the help of Persians which still continued to hold its influence
around the Hellespontine region. However, it is possible that after the
Eurymedon defeat of Persians both in land and at sea in the early 460s or in
469, Pausanias’ position in Byzantion weakened and the Athenian general,
Cimon, took the opportunity to depose Pausanias from Byzantion. In spite of
this, Sparta appears to have directly and continuously quarreled against Athens
over the control of Byzantion after the early 460 s, for the popularity of
Athenians in the Delian League as well as the anti-Persian feelings began to
decline during this period.
(^42) Thucydides, I.132.1.
(^43) Thucydides, I.132.5; Aristotle, Politics, 5.1.1301b; 5.7.1307a; 7.14.1333b; Pausanias, II.9.1;
Nepos, Pausanias, 3.6. (^44) The date of his death has not been determined, but probably corresponds to around 470 B.C.
See Powell, ibid., 106 and B.C. F. Lasserre in Der Kleine Pauly, 1979, Band 4, col.569.
