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Obstacles and Opportunities for Afforestation and Reforestation
Projects under the Clean Development Mechanism of the Kyoto Protocol
(paper related to Item 6)
- 1 Introduction Franziska Haupt & Heiner von Lüpke
- 2 Modalities & Procedures of Forestry CDM
- 2.1 Rationale
- 2.2 Project Cycle & Actors...............................................................................................................
- 2.3 Small-scale Projects
- 3 Challenges and Obstacles.................................................................................................................
- 3.1 Political Background..................................................................................................................
- 3.2 Market for Forestry Credits........................................................................................................
- 3.3 Investment, Transaction Costs & Risks
- 3.4 Methodological and Procedural Issues
- 3.5 Social and Legal Issues
- 4 Progress............................................................................................................................................
- 4.1 Scope of Approved Methodologies
- 4.2 The first registered project:........................................................................................................
- 4.3 Promoting equal regional representation of the CDM: The Nairobi Framework
- 4.4 FAO involvement in AR CDM
- 5 Opportunities
- 5.1 SWOT Analysis of forestry projects under the CDM...............................................................
- 5.2 Outlook: Investment with a view to the future
- 6 Appendix
- 6.1 Approved Methodologies.........................................................................................................
- 6.2 Scope of Approved Methodologies
- 6.3 Project Proposals in the Process of Validation
- 7 References ............................................................................................................................
1 Introduction
For the first commitment period (2008-2012), the Kyoto Protocol targets measures to mitigate climate change only within developed countries. There is an important exception: the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), one of the Protocol’s flexibility mechanisms that negotiators created to reduce costs of emissions reductions. Public or private entities may fulfil their obligations under the Protocol through investing in "Clean Development" projects in developing countries. While reducing emissions, CDM projects aim to promote sustainable development in the host country.
The mechanism is estimated to generate around two billion tons of carbon credits by the end of 2012, an amount that corresponds to the present annual emissions of Russia^1. Although more than 600 CDM projects are registered, those involving Afforestation and Reforestation (AR) are proving slow to become operational. Project developers seem to have difficulties in presenting methodologies and project proposals acceptable to the Executive Board of the CDM. Only since last year has AR CDM actually passed the stage of methodology development. Subsequently, the first project was registered (Nov. 2006), and several other projects should be approved soon.
This paper provides an analysis of the current obstacles to and opportunities for successful development of AR CDM projects. Considering the progress made, the paper highlights the potential and opportunities for AR CDM. A summary of the first registered project, "Facilitating Reforestation for Guangxi Watershed Management in Pearl River Basin, China," illustrates the possibilities.
2 Modalities & Procedures of Forestry CDM
The AR CDM is a mechanism to credit carbon sequestration by forests. Within the negotiated modalities and procedures, the options for project developers are varied: the established forests may be managed, harvested and used for agro-forestry, bio-energy, timber production or even urban forestry^2. Objectives such as environmental protection and poverty alleviation give support to the claim of sustainable development.
2.1 Rationale
The rationale of CDM projects and methodologies is generally based on two scenarios: The baseline scenario describes the development of carbon stocks without the CDM project. Project developers may choose between several approaches to characterize the baseline scenario: most commonly described through the existing or historical changes in carbon stocks in the vegetation. The project scenario estimates the effect of forest establishment, i.e., the increase in carbon stocks.
The difference between the baseline and the project scenario indicates the carbon sequestration achieved through the reforestation activity and the resulting amount of tradable carbon credits. CDM project design also includes an approach for periodic monitoring of carbon stocks to verify the achieved emissions reductions.
Emission caused by the implementation of the project (e.g., from vehicles used for transport of seedlings), or shifts of emissions to outside the project boundary ("leakage", e.g., due to the displacement of grazing animals) have to be monitored and subtracted.
(^1) UNFCCC website > CDM > CDM statistics; UNFCCC website > GHG emission data (^2) Neeff et al. 2006
Since the established forest will eventually release the once sequestered carbon through forest decay or harvest, AR projects only result in so-called temporary or long-term Certified Emissions Reductions (tCERs and lCERs). These carbon credits expire after a certain period, which means they will have to be replaced by other credits in the future.
Registration
EB
Executive Board
Project Design
Host Country DNA Approval Designated National Authority
DOE
Designated Operational Entity
Verification
Certification
Validation
Figure: CDM project cycle
Registration
EB
Executive Board
Project Design
Host Country DNA Approval Designated National Authority
DOE
Designated Operational Entity
Verification
Certification
Validation
Figure: CDM project cycle
The BioCarbon Fund , as one existing example, administered by the World Bank, purchases carbon credits from CDM projects, and finances demonstration projects for carbon sequestration and conservation in forest and agro-ecosystems outside the Kyoto market. The main contributors to this public/private partnership are governments such as Canada and Italy, and companies, e.g., Japanese power companies. Projects that seek qualification under the BioCarbon Fund, apply the Fund's own procedures, including the submission of a Project Idea Note and a subsequent detailed Carbon Finance Document. The fund's goals are more specific than the CDM: cost-effectiveness of emissions reductions while promoting biodiversity and poverty alleviation 1.
Several similar funds exist: the World Bank initiated the Community Development Carbon Fund that buys carbon credits from forestry projects with a special focus on poverty alleviation and the involvement of local communities 2.
2.3 Small-scale Projects
The purpose of small-scale AR CDM is to enable the participation of low income communities and individuals. To make these activities viable, simplified modalities and procedures were designed, which are expected to reduce the high transaction costs usually associated with AR CDM.
To qualify as small-scale, projects have to comply with the following conditions:
- Projects may be carried out only by low income individuals or communities, as defined by the host country.
(^1) Website of the World Bank Carbon Finance Unit > Carbon Funds > BioCarbon Fund (^2) Website of the World Bank Carbon Finance Unit > Carbon Funds > Community Development Carbon Fund
- If carbon removals exceed an annual limit of 8,000 tons of CO 2 , these are not eligible as certified emissions reductions. This limit implies a maximum area ranging from several hundred hectares for plantations, to several thousand hectares for agro-forestry or forest restoration projects^1.
- Projects must not be a de-bundled larger scale activity. To register a set of small-scale AR CDM project activities, these have to be at least one kilometre apart.
3 Challenges and Obstacles
3.1 Political Background 2
The inclusion of forest sinks in mitigation activities has been one of the most controversial issues in climate change negotiations: Accounting for forest sinks was frequently viewed as a "loophole" policy to sidestep serious measures for emissions reduction. Several parties stressed the potential risks of forestry projects: Carbon removals by forests are considered to be only temporary. Moreover, the establishment of plantations could contribute to deforestation, loss of biodiversity and harmful impacts on local livelihoods. These risks and related scepticism have, to a certain degree, impaired the political process as well as the potential of forestry CDM.
Due to the resulting methodological and technical uncertainties, negotiators had great difficulty in agreeing on a scheme to account for carbon sequestration by forests. Only Afforestation and Reforestation activities were identified as qualifying for the CDM. The negotiation of modalities and procedures for forestry CDM took two years longer than for other CDM sectors (e.g., energy), which also caused some delay in investment in this sector. The temporary nature of carbon sequestration by forests was taken into account by special types of expiring carbon credits (see section 2.2). To address the "loophole" risk, negotiators limited the amount of allowable emissions reductions through forestry to 1% of countries' 1990 emissions for the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol.
3.2 Market for Forestry Credits
Compared to regular carbon credits, the market for temporary credits from forestry is limited. One major obstacle for AR CDM is the EU's decision to exclude forestry credits from the EU Emissions Trading Scheme, which currently holds the majority of the overall carbon market. The legal directive gives as the reason for exclusion the Community's differing priorities for climate policy, as well as the above-mentioned risks of forest sinks^3. Since the trading scheme covers much of the European private sector, this EU policy keeps forestry credits out of reach of one of the major demand groups.
Governments, including the EU members, may still achieve part of their obligations through forestry credits. The 1%-cap of the Kyoto Protocol is actually not a quantitative obstacle: So far, transactions cover only 6% of tradable credits under the allowable 1%-cap^4. This limitation might, however, alienate investors and credit buyers - as supposedly does the EU policy. Similarly, as a recent survey^5 shows, the temporary nature of credits and the risks attached to forestry credits are seen as reasons not to buy them.
(^1) Robledo 2004 (^2) Hunter et al. 2002, Streck and Scholz 2006 (^3) Commission of the European Communities 2003 (^4) World Bank 2007 (^5) EcoSecurities 2006
development^1. Forest certification (e.g., Forest Stewardship Council) enhances credibility of AR projects in terms of sustainable forest management.
3.4 Methodological and Procedural Issues
More than other CDM sectors, AR has been technically challenging to formulation of methodologies acceptable to the Executive Board. The effort to develop a new methodology seems considerable, as approved methodologies often cover more than one hundred pages. Methodologies might not be applicable or adaptable to specific local situations, which would sometimes appear only during the course of project implementation.
The project cycle for AR CDM is described as very challenging^2 and requires input by CDM experts and foresters. In particular, the handling and writing of technical documentations demands qualified consultants. Compared to other CDM sectors, AR projects are involved in features unique to forest or land management: e.g., biodiversity, hydrology or land ownership. The procedures require a data background (e.g., proof of land eligibility) that might be costly to obtain under some circumstances 3.
At first glance, the additionality concept seems to impair forestry CDM. Additionality and its proof are certainly a difficult issue for the CDM and not only for forestry projects. However, this ensures that the project delivers real benefits for climate change mitigation. In practice, it means that commercial large- scale plantations that would be economically viable and don't face any other barrier or laws stipulating other land uses, are not eligible under the CDM. A project might be considered additional if it comprises a mix of activities with low financial indices that would not be possible without carbon finance, e.g., a combination of agro-forestry, community forestry and conservation 4.
3.5 Social and Legal Issues
Forestry projects often involve a strong social and participatory component, which becomes even more important in view of the development objectives of the CDM. The legal background is a crucial element to ensure equitable benefit sharing and to avoid social conflicts 5 , which could impair the permanence of carbon sequestration. Contractual agreements for joint-management and shared benefits can build the legal back-up. For this reason, it is essential to consider all local interests and rights during the planning process, although it can be expensive and has conflict-potential. Some experiences report the integration of local people in monitoring procedures as highly beneficial 6.
Tenureship has to be clear and structured for the implementation of a CDM project. One of the underlying problems is the conflict between customary and official law, where several users may have different rights for different types of land use^7. Another source of conflict is the displacement of pre- project land uses and in some cases also land users. Restriction of access and rights might not be effective and leads to conflicts.
(^1) Neeff and Henders 2007 (^2) World Bank 2007 inter alia (^3) Fadda 2006, presentation (^4) Streck et al. 2006b (^5) Jindal 2006 (^6) Skutsch and Murdiyarso 2006 (^7) Jindal 2006
4 Progress
There has been considerable progress during the last year, as methodologies have been developed to fulfil the AR-specific criteria and procedures. One project, using the first approved methodology, was registered in November 2006. Seven other proposals are currently in the process of validation, proposing emissions reductions of around 0.8 Megatons of CO 2 (see Appendix for details).
4.1 Scope of Approved Methodologies
Since the first large-scale methodology was accepted in November 2006, some basic issues have been overcome and the process has gathered speed. Methodologies have evolved through a learning- by-doing process, where project developers submit proposals to the Executive Board. The key questions are addressed by improving and building on previously submitted methodologies. With several proposals still pending, up to now (May 2007) seven, out of more than 30 submitted, large- scale methodologies for AR CDM have been accepted. The Executive Board has also developed a methodology for small-scale projects.
Though the project developer cannot combine these features as may be necessary, the approved methodologies offer a broad scope of possible baseline and project scenarios (see Appendix for details). Methodologies currently allow pre-project land uses such as pasture, agriculture, grazing and fuelwood collection, or just abandoned land. Forests are established by planting or by natural regeneration. One methodology also foresees control of grazing and fuelwood collection. Another targets establishment of commercial and industrial plantations (reference number AR-AM0005); yet another (AR-AM0006) allows agricultural intercropping and forage production for feedstock. Project emissions and leakage are accounted for: fossil fuel consumption due to the project implementation, displacement of grazing and fuelwood collection, displacement of agriculture, burning of biomass, or farming and pastoral activities undertaken by displaced people.
4.2 The first registered project:
First of all, the project presented the first methodology acceptable to the Executive Board. Some other factors leading to the success for the Guangxi project are:
- strong combination of objectives, all promoting sustainable development: biodiversity enhancement, erosion control and poverty alleviation
- participatory approaches for project design and management
- clear contractual arrangements and legal structure prior to project design
- support and sponsorship by the World Bank, also through the umbrella project
4.3 Promoting equal regional representation of the CDM:
The Nairobi Framework
The CDM appears unevenly distributed not only amongst sectors but also regions. Natural resources typically present one of the main economic opportunities for less developed countries, whereas the potential to reduce emissions in the energy sector is quite low. Therefore, less developed countries are disproportionally affected by the relative complexity of AR CDM. Unfavourable investment climate and the higher risks prevailing in less developed countries, aggravate the obstacles for CDM. Aside from barely functional institutional pre-requisites, the lack of capacity at all levels - the lack of resources to even become aware of the process - is assumed to be one of the main reasons for Africa's under-representation in the CDM market.
To enhance CDM participation of least developed countries, especially Africa and Small Island Developing States, the former UN Secretary-General announced the Nairobi Framework^1 : a UN-led partnership linking government action to the private sector. The Objectives of this capacity building initiative include:
- capacity building for host country institutions, and for project development
- information exchange and compilation, e.g., a web-based CDM Bazaar
- promotion of investment opportunities
- coordinated work of different UN agencies
The last UNFCCC conference encouraged countries to give financial support for identification and development of projects. This includes indirect financial support through intergovernmental and non- governmental organizations such as FAO.
Lessons learnt: developing AR CDM in Central Asia
Based on field experience in developing AR CDM projects in Central Asia, the following recommendations can be given from FAO’s perspective:
- Collaborate with committed implementing organisations and individuals, which understand the legal implications of carbon finance. The particular nature of the CDM, which has to generate and deliver carbon credits as a new commodity in order to enable project revenues, needs to be understood.
- Look for situations where a need for reforestation is expressed, but barriers (e.g., ecological, financial, investment related) prevent implementation
- Tree growth in planted forests translates directly into carbon sequestration rates and accordingly to carbon revenues. For example, in areas with low growth rates (e.g., drylands, mountainous sites) carbon revenues are less, but environmental and socio-economic objectives may become very important.
- Availability of forest growth data, forest inventory data and aerial images facilitates project documentation.
- Carbon finance can add about 20 % additional revenues to the cash flow table of a project.
- Identify carbon buyers prior to, or at a very early stage of project development. Institutional buyers tend to pay less for carbon credits, but represent low risks.
(^1) UNFCCC website > CDM > Nairobi Framework; Decision FCCC/KP/CMP/2006/10/Add.
4.4 FAO involvement in AR CDM
According to CDM modalities, carbon credits should not be financed by money that would otherwise fund official development assistance. The role of international organisations and donors is therefore restricted to facilitating and financing projects up to the stage of registration. FAO has been engaged in a range of different activities:
- Regional workshops on AR CDM
- Capacity building seminars on the rules and modalities for AR CDM, intensive and over several days (e.g., Ecuador Nov. 2005)
- Facilitation of AR CDM projects: technical assistance, formulation of projects, investor linkages, advice to project developers and governments.
- Support to small scale AR CDM and pilot project activities
- Methodological guidance and information dissemination
5 Opportunities
CDM claims a contribution to sustainable development, where in particular forestry activities have huge potential: Reforestation can have various and far-reaching benefits for local people and their environment, which are in many instances not monetarily evaluated. It has the potential to enhance the supply of forest resources for subsistence, regular markets and energy needs. As illustrated by the Guangxi River project, AR CDM can contribute to the exchange of better practices for forestry and environmental management.
The potential of forestry CDM is even more important in face of climate change related events such as droughts, heat waves and floods. Therefore, the development dividend and carbon finance are especially appropriate where poverty alleviation and environmental protection suggest themselves as priorities of the forestry sector^1. As a project-based mechanism the CDM can specifically target local circumstances and needs.
On the one hand, CDM adds its own procedures to verify carbon removals and development benefits; on the other hand it can make investments profitable. The question is if carbon revenues and social or environmental achievements can balance the procedural effort.
At first, the lengthy decision-making process, restrictions and complex procedures have alienated potential project developers and investors. Considering the scope of AR methodologies and the progress in the project pipeline, AR CDM seems to have passed this pilot phase. As intended, the Guangxi Reforestation project demonstrates that AR CDM can generate "high-quality emissions reductions in greenhouse gases that can be measured, monitored and verified" 2. Initial challenges, such as methodological, technical and procedural complexity, can be overcome by routine and lessons learned through first experiences. Thus, transaction costs for forestry CDM will further decrease.
The successful pilot project and the proposals still awaiting approval attach great importance to development objectives as well as the social dimensions of reforestation activities. Apparently, AR CDM does not reward mere carbon sequestration by forest establishment. It is not necessarily a business opportunity in itself but specifically targets those investments that would not happen without carbon finance, i.e., where carbon finance can tip the balance by making forestry projects economically viable. In accordance with the objectives of the BioCarbon Fund and similar schemes, the social and environmental benefits seem to be essential criteria for project approval.
(^1) corresponding to the goals specified in the FAO Forestry Outlook Study for Africa 2003 (^2) Website of the World Bank Carbon finance Unit > BioCarbon Fund > Projects > China Pearl River Watershed Management
5.2 Outlook: Investment with a view to the future
Currently negotiations for a subsequent commitment period of the Kyoto protocol are underway. Although it can be expected that the CDM will continue beyond 2012, the exact modalities and procedures could change, as well as the list of eligible activities.
Some major institutional credit buyers already purchase forestry credits for the period post-2012. However, it might be an option to develop pilot projects in the following areas 1 :
- Reducing emissions through avoided deforestation in developing countries
- Combined Bioenergy and afforestation and reforestation projects
- Soil carbon management in crop- and grasslands
- Harvested wood product management
- Revegetation and forest management
- Energy efficiency projects leading to less deforestation and forest degradation
Developing such projects entails the risk of non-eligibility, but could lead to valuable experience in terms of emissions reductions and sequestration potential, cost efficiency and methodology development. In its latest assessment report, the IPCC (2007) softens possible future concerns by reconfirming that forest related mitigation activities can considerably reduce emissions from sources and increase CO 2 removals by sinks at low costs. Depending on model parameters and level of emissions reduction targets, the same report states that prices for carbon credits might rise to 20 to 80 US$/tCO 2 and 30 to 155 US$/tCO 2 in order to attract investment in mitigation projects.
Programmes and policies under the CDM. According to UNFCCC, a public sector measure such as a failed national reforestation programme or a private initiative might be eligible under the CDM. In the forest sector such activities are characterized by various and dispersed reforestation sites, which are not necessarily planted at the same time or location. The submission of such activities occurs jointly through one single Project Design Document. It is assumed that the types and sizes of activities may not be known at the time of project registration, though must be identifiable ex ante of the expected activities. This sectoral approach to CDM has major implications: Potential carbon revenues present an incentive to develop new and to implement existing policies or programs in the forest sector. Sectoral CDM would lead to lower transaction costs, baseline setting on national level, large scale monitoring and verification. However, specific guidance and decisions by the CDM Executive Board are not issued yet.
(^1) IPCC 2007; Schlamadinger 2007
6 Appendix
6.1 Approved Methodologies
6.2 Scope of Approved Methodologies
Baseline Scenario Project Scenario/ Forest Plantation Type
degraded and degrading land below forest threshold
harvesting in short or long rotation, with regeneration through natural sprouting no grazing
2 degraded and degrading land^ no grazing
degraded and degrading land includes grazing and fuelwood collection
may be established through assisted natural regeneration or the control of grazing and fuelwood collection
4 degraded and degrading land includes grazing and fuelwood collection
grasslands, unmanaged or extensively managed for commercial or industrial use
6 degraded or degrading land below forest threshold
agricultural intercropping forage production to feedstock
abandoned, pastoral or agricultural land harvesting in short or long rotation, with regeneration through planting, sowing, coppicing or assisted natural regeneration
Reference Number Overview: http://cdm.unfccc.int/methodologies/ARmethodologies/approved_ar.html
AR-AM0001 Reforestation of degraded land - Version 2
AR-AM0002 Restoration of degraded lands through afforestation/reforestation
AR-AM0003 Afforestation and reforestation of regeneration and control of animal grazing^ degraded land through tree planting, assisted natural - Version 2
AR-AM0004 Reforestation or afforestation of land currently under agricultural use
AR-AM0005 Afforestation and reforestation project activities implemented commercial uses^ for industrial and/or
AR-AM0006 Afforestation/Reforestation with Trees Supported by Shrubs on Degraded Lands
AR-AM0007 Afforestation and Reforestation of Land Currently Under Agricultural or Pastoral Use
AR-AMS0001 Simplifiedafforestation and reforestation project activities^ baseline^ and^ monitoring^ methodologies^ for^ selected^ small-scale
7 References
Website of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) http://unfccc.int
Website of the World Bank Carbon Finance Unit: http://carbonfinance.org
All CDM-related decisions taken by the Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (COP/MOP). UNFCCC website > Reference http://cdm.unfccc.int/Reference/COPMOP/index.html
Commission of the European Communities. 2003. 2003/0173 Proposal for a Directive establishing a scheme for greenhouse gas emission allowance trading within the Community, in respect of the Kyoto Protocol’s project mechanism. Brussels.
Ecosecurities. 2006. Should Temporary CERs be Included in the EU ETS Linking Directive? and other questions concerning the potential demand for CDM Forestry CERs. Results of a survey of demand-side actors by EcoSecurities Consult. Oxford.
Fadda, M. 2006_. AR CDM Projects – Expectations from a DOE Perspective._ Presentation. International workshop on AR CDM. Valdivia, January 2006.
FAO. 2003. Forestry Outlook Study for Africa: Regional Report - opportunities and challenges towards 2020. FAO forestry paper 141.
Hunter, D., Salzman, J. and Zaelke, D. 2002. International Environmental Law and Policy. Second Edition. University Casebook Series, Foundation Press. New York. p. 588 et sqq.
IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: Mitigation of Climate Change. Fourth Assessment Report, Summary for Policymakers. Geneva.
Jindal, R. 2006. Carbon Sequestration Projects in Africa: Potential Benefits and Challenges to Scaling Up. World Resources Institute. Earth Trends Environmental Essay Competition Winner 2006.
Kägi, W. and Schöne, D. 2005. Forestry Projects under the CDM - Procedures, Experiences and Lessons learned. FAO Forest and Climate Change, Working Paper No. 3.
Neeff, T. and Henders, S. 2007. Guidebook to markets and commercialization of forestry CDM projects. FORMA Project. Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE).
Neeff, T., von Lüpke, H. and Schöne, D. 2006. Choosing a forest definition for the Clean Development Mechanism. FAO Forests and climate change, Working paper No. 4.
Robledo, C. and Tippmann, R. 2004. Opportunities and challenges for the timber industry to participate in CDM activities. prepared for the 45th^ Session of the ACPWP.
Robledo, C. 2006. Forestry Options for Developing Countries within the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change - Mitigation and Adaptation as a means for Sustainable Development. Swiss Intercooperation. Prepared for the Workshop: AR CDM Opportunities and Challenges for Africa. Ghana, 2006.
Schlamadinger, B. 2007. Post-2012 Eligibility of Land-use and Bioenergy Activities in the CDM. Presentation. Annex I Expert Group Seminar with Developing Countries: “Working Together to Respond to Climate Change” Paris.
Skutsch, M. and Murdiyarso, D. (eds.) 2006. Lessons learned. in: Community forest management as a carbon mitigation option: Case studies. Bogor, Indonesia: Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR).
Streck, C., Bosquet, B. and Schlamadinger, B. 2006a. Policy Brief: Inclusion of Temporary Credits from CDM Forestry Projects into the EU Emission Trading Scheme. Technical Workshop on the Role of Forests in the Carbon Market, Focusing on the EU ETS: Brussels, 2006.
Streck, C., Janson-Smith, T. and Schnurr, J. 2006b. Key Technical Issues Relevant to CDM Forestry Projects. Technical Workshop on the Role of Forests in the Carbon Market, Focusing on the EU ETS: Brussels, March 2006.
Streck, C. and Scholz, S. 2006. The role of forests in global climate change: whence we come and where we go. International Affairs 82: 5 (2006) 861–879.
The World Bank: Capoor, K. and Ambrosi, P. 2007. State and Trends of the Carbon Market 2007.
Zhang, Z. - Schlamadinger, B. and Bird, N. 2006. Case-Study from Asia-Pacific. Facilitating Reforestation for Guangxi Watershed Management in Pearl River Basin. Presentation for International Workshop on CDM - Opportunities and Challenges for the Forest Industry Sector in Sub-Saharan Africa, Ghana, 2006.
