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This document delves into the historical and geographical influences on the state of kerala, exploring its origins, cultural development, and religious traditions. It examines the role of geography in shaping kerala's history, analyzes the impact of migrations and trade on its cultural landscape, and critically evaluates the historical significance of the st. Thomas legend. The document also highlights the importance of various sources, including tamil literature and inscriptions, in reconstructing kerala's past.
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PART I GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY CHAPTERS CONTENTS PAGES I IMPORTANCE OF LOCATION IN PENINSULAR INDIA 0706 II LANDSCAPE AND SOIL TYPES 14 42 III THE WESTERN GHATS 4347 IV RIVER SYSTEMS AND BACKWATERS 4872 V CHANGING ROLES OF THE ARABIAN SEA 7377 PARTII SOURCES AND HISTORICAL WRITINGS CHAPTERS CONTENTS PAGES 1 LEGENDS AND PERCEPTIONS 79131 II SEARCHES FOR PRIMARY SOURCES 132149 III TRADITIONAL WRITING OF DIFFERENT TYPES 150163 IV NEW WRITING 164194 V EMERGING AREAS 195208
inheritance to the natural landscape of the State.Conner’s report runs as follows: The face of the country presents considerable diversity, although its general character, except the southern partsl is extremely abrupt and mountainous. The coast, for a short distance a long the borders of the lake is generally flat: retreating from it, the surface immediately becomes unequal, roughening into slopes which gradually combine and swell into the mountainous amphitheatre that bounds it on the east, where it falls precipitately, but terminates less abruptly on the south. The collected villages waving plains, palmyra topes and extensive cultivation of Nanchanad resemble inevery particular the neightbouring province of Tirnelvelly, except that in no measure partakes of its comparative arid sterility.Approaching northward this fertile plain is succeeded by the woody and rugged surface of the genuine ‘Malayalam’ some few champaign tracts enclosed within this ocean of forest relieve the uniformity of the sylvan scene.The extent lining the coast for its whole length presents fertility so near the sea that it imparts a peculiar character to the landscape.This rich and variegated tract is flanked by a mountainous barrier and is finally contrasted with the somber magnificence and desolate solitude of those wilds of which the elephant seems the natural inaster; and though the landscape may be too much made up of this wild scenery, it boasts of many striking localities and peculiar beauties, if not the sublime, at least romantic and picturesque kinds.The dye is arrested by the wild, rocky, precipitous acclivities and fantastic forms assumed by the mountains in the more southern parts; but proceeding north the bold and elevated contour of the alpine tract is less sharply defined; a few rugged cliffs and spiry points or conical summits alone breaking through the sameness of its rounded and somber outline.This Apennine dissolves into clustering hills and romantic inequalities at whose feet wind innumerable valleys presenting (particularly in the middle parts) the most delightful landscapes whose natural beauties are embellished and diversified by the prospect of churches and pagodas.Indeed, the endless succession of houses and gardens scattered in picturesque order over the face of the country gives it entirely a
different appearance from the other coast, the nudity of whose plains is unfavourably contrasted with the robe of florid and exuberant vegetation that for a great part of the year clothes ‘Malayalam’.The areca and coconut everywhere fringe those picturesque and sequestered glens, which gradually expand into the extensive plantations and cultivated lands that skirt the sea and lake.This space is enlivened and fertilized by innumerable rivers and pastoral streams whose borders are crowned with groves and cultivation that, everywhere, following their winding course, present a unique, interesting and charming scenery infinitely more diversified than most other parts of the peninsula and one that would indicate abundance.This is especially the case in Kuttanad, the watery flatness of this fertile fen is relieved by othe gardens and habitations so thickly strewn over its surface which exhibits a network of rivers meandering through the verdure they create. It has also been remarked that “it will be difficult to name another land which, within so narrow limits, combines so many, so varied and much precious natural blessings”. Although Conner’s description was on the physical aspects of Southern Kerala, it is binding upon the general attributes of physiography of other parts of Kerala as well. However, it may be mentioned that large scale deforestation, extensive transference of natural wood lands into monocultural gardens and intensive reclamation of marshes and margins of kayals have affected the land systems significantly and have also resulted in the scrapping of natural vegetation, particularly in the last two scores of years.A study of the geographical factor in relation to Kerala history assumes special significance in this context.
one out of every 173 humans in the world is a Keralite. Considering the size of the population the position of Kerala is twelfth among the 22 States in India. The geographical position of Kerala as the narrow strip of land hemmed in between the Western Ghats on the one side and the Arabian Sea on the other has considerably influenced the course of its history.The State has from the dawn of history enjoyed a kind of insularity, which has given it welcome immunity from the political convulsions, which shook Northern India.Kerala seldom felt the impact of the many foreign invasions that took place in the northern part of India from across the border. It took longer time for Aryanism, Buddhism and Jainism from the north to penetrate into Kerala than into the other parts of Peninsular India. Kerala was also able to evolve its own way of life and social institutions unhampered by excessive interference from outside. This factor has helped the growth of peculiar social institutions like the Marumakkathayam or the matrilineal system of inheritance, polyandry, etc., in Kerala.Even Brahmins and Muslims who as a rule follow everywhere the Makkathayam or patrilineal system of inheritance have Marumakkathayis among them in Kerala, viz., the Nambudiris of Payyannur Gramam and the Mappilas of North Malabar, Kerala could also evolve its own distinctive styles of art and architecture which are in many respects different from those inother parts of India. Such arts as Chakiar Kuthu, Kathakali, Mohini Attam and Ottam Tullal developed in Kerala in an atmosphere of splendid isolation. Kerala’s contacts with the Roman Empire and other foreign countries had started from the ancient times itself.These contacts were mainly centred on trading activities and cultural contacts.The remains of Teak wook found at Mohanjo daro and the Harappan seals found at south India have made some historians to assume that Kerala had maintained trade relations with the Harappans through sea.The same type of arguments have been put forward by some historians to assume that Kerala had maintained trade relations with Egypt and Sumeria in the ancient times on the basis of some of the material remains found there.However, the existence of Roman trade with Kerala during the ancient period has been proved beyond doubt. Similarly, Kerala had
maintained trade relations with China, Burma, and Malaya etc. from the 1st century A.D. onwards Kautilya’s ‘Arthasastra’ also mentions about the trading activities of north India with Kerala during the Mauryan period. Kerala maintained better relations with the outside world than with that of the rest of the country from the very early period.This paved way for the early emergence of the foreign culture to Kerala than the other parts of India.The Keralites had shown much tolerance to receive the ideas and people from the outside world from the ancient period onwards.The overseas trade and cultural contacts helped for the arrival of Jewish, emigrants to Kerala in the ancient period itself.The Christians arrived in Kerala in a much earlier period from the Middle East, which had trade contacts with this land.The popular tradition of Kerala Christians about St. Thomas’s arrival has to be identified with these migrations.The Arab travelers and traders had visited the Kerala coast in a much earlier period.The arrival of Islam to Kerala happened through these Arab contacts and the spread of Islam in Kerala can be identified with the legend related with the last Perumal’s conversion to Islam.All these religions arrived in Kerala at various times became the integral part of Kerala in the course of time.They all were assimilated to the Kerala society. Though Kerala maintained its political isolation from north India, it accepted the cultural and religious contributions of the north and assimilated them with the Kerala tradition and made a separate subculture. The cultural traditions of the north took more time to reach Kerala but once they arrived they were assimilated to the indigenous culture and paved way for the growth of a common cultural synthesis.The Vedic religion, Buddhism and Jainism arrived Kerala from north India. It is assumed that Jainism and Buddhism had reached Kerala through the trade relations with the best of the country and from Karnataka.The Jaina ‘Basadis’ of Wayanad and the Jains centres at Trikkanamatilakam and Kallil are the living examples of the spread of Jainism in Kerala.The Buddhist influence on the cultural tradition of Kerala society is still visible.
empire had maintained friendly relations with the southern kingdoms including Kerala. Historians like K.A.N. Sastri (A History of South India) and Raghava Iyangar (Some Aspects of Kerala and Tamil Culture) believe that Bindusara, the Mauryan emperor had attacked some parts of Kerala prior to Asoka. But there are no authentic evidences to prove this statement. The evolution of the language and culture of Kerala has also been influenced by contacts with the Tamil and Kannada regions.The southern dialect of Malayalam shows traces of Tamil influence while the northern dialect bears evidence of Kannada influence.The customs and manners of the people in the extreme south and north of the State show traces of influence from the adjoining Tamil and Kannada districts.The influence of the pallava, Chalukya and Vijayanagar styles may be seen in the temple architecture and sculpture of Kerala.The Tamil influence is perceptible in the High Ranges and some of the adjoining areas in Kottayam district. Several temples dedicated to Madurai Minakshi may be seen here.The Minachil taluk has itself derived its name from Goddess minakshi, popularly called minachi in Tamil Nadu. In fact, Kerala history embraces within its scope a study of the relations of Kerala with such InterState border districts of Kanyakumari, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Coimbatore, Coorg, Mysore and South Canara in their proper historical perspective. From the ancient time onwards itself Kerala turned out to be the meeting place of various Indian and Foreign cultures and in the course of time Kerala culture emerged from this intermixture of various cultures.All the cultural traditions that had arrived in Kerala through the ages were assimilated to the common tradition resulting into a subculture from the synthesis of various cultures. Kerala also showed the tolerance to accept all the religions that had reached from various parts of the world and allowed them to settle down.All these religions and cultures have undoubtedly contributed for the growth of the cultural tradition of Kerala. MIGRATIONS AND PATTERNS OF SETTLEMENTS. Migrations of various groups of people into Kerala had started from the period of Megalithic culture.They came one after the other and so they do not
belong to same ethnic group.Different in their physical features, customs and traditions, life style etc; they all came to Kerala at different periods and together developed a separate subculture in the course of time.The process of migration to Kerala was hastened in the course of time due to the tolerant attitude of the early settlers. Some of the early tribes like the Muthvans and Kanikkars had migrated from Tamil Nadu.Their present day customs and traditions are similar to that of the Tamil people.They maintained the language and the cultural traditions of the Tamil people.The tribal people of Kerala were considered as a part of ancient Tamilakam by the classical Tamil writers. The Nambudiri Brahmins were another community who had migrated to Kerala in the ancient period.The earliest Brahmin settlers came to Kerala from the South Canara region of Karnataka and in the later period some of them came from Tamil Nadu through Palakkad.The Brahmin migrants came to Kerala in different periods in various groups.The course of their migration was from north to south Kerala, stretching from Payyannur in the north to the coastal areas of Bharatapuzha, Pamba and Periyar.The migration and settlement to south Kerala took place only in the later period.The earliest settlement of the Brahmins were in 32 villages stretching from north to south. The Keralolpathi tradition also states about the migration of Brahmins to Kerala and their settlement at 32 villages.The migration of the Nambudiri Brahmins to Kerala was completed by the 7th^ century A.D. The migration of Jews took place to Kerala by the beginning of Christian era.They had come to Kerala to escape from the persecution of the Roman rulers.The Jews settled at various places like Mattanchery, Mala, Ankamali, Kodungallur etc.The migrations of Christians also took place to Kerala in the ancient period, but no evidences are available to know the exact period of their migration.The Tarisappalli Copper Plate of 9th^ century and the accounts of the foreign travelers confirm the existence of flourishing Christian community at Kollam Kodungallur etc. by that time.According to the popular St. Thomas tradition the migration of Christians took place to Kerala by 4th^ century A.D. The migration of Arabs took place at later period and many natives were
community.Separate streets of separate groups of craftsmen are seen in the urban areas of Kerala, like the ‘Theru’ or street of Weavers, goldsmiths etc. Separate sections of house holdings for separate religions also were not in practice in Kerala, people belonging to Hindu, Christian and Islam live, in Kerala in adjacent plots.This nonseparation between the various religions and castes has contributed much for the total integration of the people of Kerala irrespective of their religious or caste barriers.The Christian churches, the Muslim mosques and the Hindu temples are built nearby with in the villages and this paved way for the communal harmony existed in Kerala. The peculiar type of settlement pattern of Kerala has helped for the growth of a common cultural and political tradition of the people of the state.
Physiography Kerala (8o^ 15’N to 12o^ 45’N and 75o^ 52 E to 77o^ 08’E) is a narrow strip of South Western part of Peninsular India, with a width varying from 30 km. in the North and South and to about 130 km. in the centre. It covers an area of 38,854.97 km that is 1% of India’s total area and geographically, the area can be divided into: (a) the low land coastal area covered by sandy and alluvial soils, (b) the mid land region covered by laterite and (c) the up land with granitic gneiss and charnockite rocks. Kerala enjoys both the Southwest and Northeast monsoons; the high land region receives an annual average of 2500 mm in the south and 5000 mm in the north, the mid land regioh, 1400 mm in the south and 4000 mm in the north and the low land region, 900 mm in the south and 3500 mm in the north, the physical features of which exhibit a wide ranging variation.The topography of the state covers altitudes ranging from below the Mean Sea Level to about 3000 m. above the mean sea level.The Western Ghats
form an almost continuous mountain chain on the eastern border of the state, occasionally broken by a few passes such as Aruvamozhi and Chenkottai in the south and Palakkad in the centre.The series of mountain ranges and the high intensity of rainfall during the two monsoons, namely the South Western and North Eastern, have given birth to a number of perennial rivers which in their turn have given rise to the formation of varied landscapes.Anamalai (2695m) in the Western Ghats is the highest peak in Peninsular India.There are about 44 rivers that originate from the Ghats and 41 of them drain into either the backwaters or the Arabian Sea.The rivers are mainly monsoon fed and most of them are perennial in character.During the rainy season, rivers flow with turbulence and the larger rivers frequently raise 3 to 4 cm above their danger level causing extensive flooding in midland and coastal areas.The total run of Kerala Rivers is about 2; 50,000 million cubic feet i.e. about 5% of India’s total water potential.Kerala has a long coastline running to about 560km.There are 7 lagoons and 27 estuaries of which the Vembanad lake is the largest with an area of 205 km. Physiographically the region presents varied landforms resulting through complex Geological processes. From the fact that Geological formations of all the ages possible have not been represented in Kerala it may rightly be inferred that the region have been subjected to prolonged periods of erosion and non deposition.As per the Public Works Department of Kerala, three physiographic zones may be identified in the state viz. (1) the Highland above 76m. (II) The Midland, 7.6 to 76m. and (III) the Low land below 7.6m. Although the entire region may be conceived as a totality of forty four river basins, it is convenient to affect a division of the area into four physiographic provinces viz. the Highlands ranging in altitude from 600 m. to 2500m. the Midlands from 300 m. to 600m. the Lowlands from 30 m. to 300 m. and the Coastal plain with lagoons and sand dunes.The altitude range is asymmetric with the maximum area of about 24, sq.km. falling within an elevation of 300m. from the mean sea level. This feature may be attributed to the occurrence of isolated hillocks numerous in the
the Peninsular regions in the east is bounded either side by lofty hills of 1,100m. to 2,000 m. in elevation. The elevation in the Gap ranges from 20 m. to 100 m. Another minor breach is in the Ariyankav region which gives access ot Tamil Nadu by road and rail.The rail line however posses through several tunnels, the longest among which is about 1.2 km. in length. There are various narrow gaps providing EastWest access in the High Ranges also.The southern most of these connect Kumili in Kerala to Kumbam in Tamil Nadu.Another one to the north at Kambammedu connects Udumbanchola to Tamil Nadu.The pass connecting Tevaram to Cardamom hills is rarely used due to steepness of the route.The northernmost pass connecting Munnar to Bodinaickannur is an established trade route. The Wayanad plateau to the South of Nilgiri hills at 900 – 950m. with a general slope towards East and North East forms part of the most extensive land Systems in India. It merges with the Mysore Plateau in the north. The Plateau is delimited on the west by a long escarpment. The region might have been uplifted by stages from great depth as evidenced by their hypergranulite facies character .The postulated faulting of the Western Ghats in midmiocene (Krishnan. 1961) also might have affected by Wayanad surface in a major way.The linear hillock of magnetite quartzite at Pandalur and Devala and granitic domes around Kalpetta and Tovarimalai may be identified as erosion outlier of the Wayanad surface. A section of the Western Ghats is seen to extend through Thodupuzha upto the eastern margin of Alwaye taluk.The rugged hilly terrain alters itself with terrace type platforms westward, interspersed with narrow valleys. Even after merger with the midland region at about an elevation of 300m. the succession of hills continues westward into small hillocks highly worndown by erosion. The whole of Thodupuzha taluk is above 300 m. in elevation and hills of 900 m. or more are not uncommon.The slopes gradually recede from steep togentle and to undulating nature. There are evidences of polycyclic development of plantation surfaces in Kerala.Parthasaradhi and Vaidyanadhan (1974) have identified two Geomorphological surfaces in the Kerala region adjoining the Nilgiri surface, viz.
the Wayanad surface at 900 – 950 m. and the Malabar surface at about 75 m.According to Demongeot (1975), there are only two surfaces in the Palghat area of Kerala, the upper one sloping from 350 m. at the Palghat gap upto 75 m. towards the coast with a lateritic cover and the lower one representing the present coastal plains. Tirugnanasambandam (1976) recognize five erosional surfaces in central Kerala with distinct altitudinal ranges from 550 m. at the top to 15 – 17 m. at the lowest. Five surfaces have been recognized (Murthy, et. At. 1976) at 1500 m. 699 – 900 m. 330 – 390 m. 150 – 210 m. and 60 – 120 m. on a regional scale. In conformity with the above Sinha Roy (1979) identified four surfaces at 1200 – 1300 m. 150 – 200 m. 60 – 100 m. and 20 – 50 m. These surfaces have variable angle of slope towards west and their hinge zone is located roughly in the coastal strip.The existence of such a hinge zone indicates that the onshore areas of this region has undergone periodic uplife, that are punctuated by phases of erosion. The Western Ghat region in general presents a succession of buffs, ridges and conical peaks and is of irregular and regged topography. Most of the lofty, steepsloped hills stand isolated, detached by low valleys.The elevation of the hills gradually decrease toward the west.Small platforms occurring among these hills may be considered as saddles in the original chains, shaped into the present form through ageold erosion. Mid land: From the main range of the Ghat, rocky spurns run out towards the west, in most cases extending almost to a short distance from the sea shore.From Kallada river southward, these secondary ranges soften down into undulating slopes intersected by glens and valleys which grow wider as the elevation of the hills decrease and are very productive.North of the Cardamom hills, excepting the Palghat gap area, the long spurs and extensive ravines of the Ghat mountains are seen to merge westward into genrler slopes, rolling downs and gradually widening valleys which end themselves abruptly in cliffs giving way to lowlands.Owing to the fringing mountains in the east, numerous streams and rivers flow westward in winding courses thereby hollowing out long valleys for themselves.This region of undulating topography, ranging in elevation
depressions between the abandoned beach dunes ridges.The strand plain averages about 10km. in width for the entire length and is widest in the central part.The maximum width between the oldest ridge and the youngest one close to the present shore line is 18km.Another peculiar feature of the coastal plain is that it is furrowed across by numerous subparallel rock ridges: many of which are partly covered by the sea.The sandy body is continuous between the ridges and all the way across the strand plain, except for the areas under kayals and marshes.It may rightly be assumed that the sand is continuing under these features even.The depressions between the ridges contain lenses of modern alluvium, intermixed with marine sand.Most of the rivers in this area discharge into the kayals at present. The bore whole data indicate that the sediments in the strand plain are Holocene sands on the top, sands and clays under it and tertiary sediments at the bottom.The beach dune sediment yield themselves to a four fold grouping. In all the boreholes the stratigraphic columns the Vaikom beds, Quilon beds, Warkalli beds and the top layers of Holocene sands are seen.The Vaikom beds probably represent a fluviatile facies which formed along the slopes and depressions probably as alluvial fans or channel fill deposits.The overlying Quilon sediments are unequivocally of marine origin; resulting from the invasion of the area by the sea. However it seems that the sea has withdrawn or the shoreline migrated westward making room for the deposition of Warkalli beds.The phase might probably have been synchronous to the Late Miocene regression, during which sealevel fluctuated rapidly, dropping down to a maximum of 65 fathoms and reaching somewhere near its present level. This might have happened 25,000 to 30,000 years before present.During the Holocene, there mioght have been a period of rapid transgression, followed by a period of slow transgression and then a period of relative stability.The gradual evolution of the coastal plain may be attributed to the above phases in combinationto the abundant supply of sediments brought down by the numerous streams.The configuration of the coastline had been continuously varying and is facing a period of erosional transgression at present.The length of
the present coast line of Kerala is 560km. and is almost straight for over a great part of its length from Calicut to Quilon.In other parts however, indentations and protuberances are not uncommon. Several scholars have attempted to study the geology and geomorphology of Malabar and the earliest instance seems to be that of Buchanan, way back in the year 1800.however, studies on quaternary sediments, and climatic and sea level changes are relatively lesser.We owe the available knowledge about both geology and geomorphology of Kerala and its seaboard to a number of studies beginning with articles in Madras Journal of Literature and Science XII and Records of Geological Survey of India.The stratigraphic succession of Kerala can be grouped mainly into three divisions namely: (a) Precambrian, (b) Tertiaries, and (c) Recent and subrecent. a) Precambrian Crystalline Majority of the rocks of Kerala, particularly the granulites, and associated gneisses, belong to Precambrian Age that signifies the consolidation of the earth’s crust (more than 4 billion years ago) to about 570 million years (Cambrian) before present.The Precambrian crystalline consists of charnockite suites, pyroxene granulites, charnockitic gneisses, calc granulites, knondalites, garnet sillimanite gneiss, graphite biotite gneiss, quartzite, garnet biotite gneiss, cordierite gneiss, biotite hornblende gneiss, granites, pegmatitic veins and gabbro or dolerite dykes. (1) The crystalline rocks of the Kerala region constitute an important segment of the south Indian Precambrian terrain where evidences for major units of the Archaean continental crust such as granulites, granites gneisses and green stones are well preserved. (2) South Kerala is significant in depicting the major divide between the magmataised metasedimentary and metaigneous rocks (Khondalitic rocks which include graphite bearing garnetiferous and nongarnetiferous sillimanite gneisses with the charnockite group of rocks in the north along the Achenkovil Tectonic Zone.The charnockitic group of rocks extended in the
