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Research 1A Methods of Research
Scope of the Course The course includes the following modules: Module I. The Research Process and Identifying a Research Problem Module II. Theory of Review of Related Literature and Studies; Sampling Techniques Module III. Methods of Research Module IV. Interpretation of Data and Statistical Techniques Module V. Writing the Research Report
Overview of the Course The course deals with the spectrum of research, its definition, kinds, and the criterion measures of a good research. What are important in a research paper are its goals and objectives expressed in the statement of the problem. In the selection of a problem, availability of the data, funds, time constraints, attitudes and interests as well as the capabilities of the researcher are considered. The course focuses on the major research methods, namely: historical, descriptive, and experimental, including case studies and feasibility projects which would be of interest especially to the business students. The module also discusses the various parts of a research report, constituting the following chapters on 1) the problem, 2) the review of related literature, 3) research design and procedures, 4) interpretation of data, and the 5) summary of findings, conclusions and recommendations. The last portion of the research report deals with the mechanics of writing the report, like footnoting, bibliography, appendices, and the use of quotations.
Objectives of the Course After studying this course on methods of research, you will be able to:
- define research and differentiate the types of research;
- select a problem based on different factors;
- distinguish the uses of the different research methods;
- identify the parts of a research report; and
- prepare a research report.
Suggested Readings Books Outhwaite, William and Turner, Stephen P. The SAGE Handbook of Social Science Methodology. London: SAGE Publications Ltd., 2007. Sanchez, Custodiosa A., Ph. D. Methods and Techniques of Research. Manila, Philippines: Rex Bookstore, 1998
Other Sources Resnik, David B., J. D., Ph. D., et al. Responsible Conduct of Research, 2nd^ Ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009, http://www.niehs.nih.gov. http://www.lc.unsw.edu.au, 2009
Research 1A Module I Lesson 1. THE MEANING OF RESEARCH
Lesson Objectives: After studying this lesson on the meaning of research, you will be able to:
- define research;
- determine the different characteristics of research;
- identify the different types of research;
- recognize the objectives of research; and
- explain the major steps in the research process.
Introduction Students in both undergraduate and graduate levels are required to do research. On the undergraduate level, the student is usually required to write a term paper as part of the requirements of some basic and major courses as in literature, the humanities, business, the social and natural sciences. In most instances, he does not actually gather empirical data for his data but just bases his study on various sources in the library and then comes up with a synthesis and reflection on his readings. As he proceeds to the upper years, however, in professional courses, he is expected to undertake an empirical inquiry into a problem of his choice in order to test his beliefs against a reality-referent. For instance, a senior nursing student, individually or as member of a team, conducts a community survey to a certain the effectiveness of a health program or to find out the attitudes of rural folks towards the use of contraceptives as a means of birth control. A student pursuing a degree in economics conducts a study on the effects of inflation. A student taking business administration looks into the effectiveness of management practices in a corporation. These studies necessarily take him out to gather information from different sectors and offices.
On the graduate level, a graduate student is required to do a more intensive and sophisticated study in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a master’s or doctoral degree.
What is Research all about?
Definitions of Research
The word “research” is a combination of “re” and “search” which literally means to “search again”, that is, one looks for previous findings on a problem and gathers his own data on the same problem to confirm, reject, modify or add new findings. The following are some definitions with commonalities and slight differences in the phraseology,
“Scientific research is systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations
among natural phenomenon” (Kerlinger). This is the most commonly accepted definition.
Research is the ‘careful, critical, disciplined inquiry, varying in technique and method according to the nature and conditions of the problem identified, directed toward the clarifications or resolutions (or both) of a problem” (Good).
Research “in the broadest sense, is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. More precisely, it is the collection of data in a rigorously controlled situation for the purpose of prediction or explanation” (Treece and Treece)
Research is “the more formal, systematic and intensive process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis for the purpose of discovery and the development of an organized body of knowledge” (Notter)
In simple terms, research is “the process of gathering data or information to solve a particular or specific problem in a specific manner” (Manuel and Medel) or the “systematic study or investigation of something for the purpose of answering questions posed by the researcher” (Parel).
Research is “a systematic and refined technique of thinking, employing specialized tools, instruments and procedures in order to obtain a more adequate solution of a problem than would be possible under ordinary means” (Crawford).
Research is “the continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown.” It entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas, new methods, or improvements. Research is always an attempt to widen one’s outlook in life. It always proceeds from the known to the unknown. (Sanchez).
It would be noted that the aforementioned definitions have commonalities which point to the following characteristics of the research process.
- Research is systematic, that is, it is a carefully planned activity which is done in an orderly manner. In other words, it is a specific structured process.
- Research is empirical – the research must subject his beliefs or speculations regarding reality to an investigation and test them against a reality-referent.
- Research is logical – it observes a system of scientific thinking. Logical examination of the procedures applied in an experiment with reference to the requirements of internal validity enables the researcher to check
- Action research or on-the-spot research aims at the solution of an immediate specific problem. For example, a plant supervisor may conduct an action research on the causes of absenteeism of his employees.
Purpose of Research According to Sanchez, in Psychology, one learns that one of the prime movers of man is his need to satisfy his curiosity. If we should think of the natural motive which prompts a scientist to pursue his professional labors, we would perhaps conclude that he engages in research because of his love for exploration. The research scientist loves to struggle with anything difficult to perceive. He spends long hours at work, foregoing all other activities and pleasures with little thought of monetary returns. The history of science identifies many who pursued research at considerable personal sacrifice. In other fields, a researcher or investigator conducts research for a specific purpose, to answer a specific question, to solve a particular controversy or issue.
Objectives of Research
The objectives of research are as follows: a) to seek new knowledge; and b) to provide useful information in the form of verifiable data.
The research process consists of the following steps:
- Identification of the problem
- Reading for concepts, theories, and previous findings
- Formulation of the theoretical background
- Formulation of hypotheses
- Identification and definitions of variables
- Identification of threats to validity of data
- Construction of the research design
- Construction and validation of instruments
- Data collection and analysis
- Findings
- Conclusions
- Recommendations
- Another problem
ETHICAL ASPECTS OF RESEARCH AND ITS IMPORTANCE Resnik (2009) explains that when most people think of ethics (or morals), they think of rules for distinguishing between right and wrong, such as the Golden Rule ("Do unto others as you would have them do unto you"), a code of professional conduct like the Hippocratic Oath ("First of all, do no harm"), a religious creed like the Ten Commandments ("Thou Shalt not kill..."), or a wise aphorisms like the sayings of Confucius. This is the most common way of
defining "ethics": norms for conduct that distinguish between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
Most people learn ethical norms at home, at school, in church, or in other social settings. Although most people acquire their sense of right and wrong during childhood, moral development occurs throughout life and human beings pass through different stages of growth as they mature. Ethical norms are so omnipresent that one might be tempted to regard them as simple commonsense. On the other hand, if morality were nothing more than commonsense, then why are there so many ethical disputes and issues in our society?
One credible explanation of these disagreements is that all people recognize some common ethical norms but different individuals interpret, apply, and balance these norms in different ways in light of their own values and life experiences.
Most societies also have legal rules that govern behavior, but ethical norms tend to be broader and more informal than laws. Although most societies use laws to enforce widely accepted moral standards and ethical and legal rules use similar concepts, it is important to remember that ethics and law are not the same. An action may be legal but unethical or illegal but ethical. We can also use ethical concepts and principles to criticize, evaluate, propose, or interpret laws. Indeed, in the last century, many social reformers urged citizens to disobey laws in order to protest what they regarded as immoral or unjust laws. Peaceful civil disobedience is an ethical way of expressing political viewpoints.
Another way of defining ethics focuses on the disciplines that study standards of conduct, such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. One may also define ethics as a method, procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and issues. For instance, in considering a complex issue like global warming, one may take an economic, ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist could examine the ethical values and principles at stake. Many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have norms for behavior that suit their particular aims and goals. These norms also help members of the discipline to coordinate their actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline. For instance, ethical norms govern conduct in medicine, law, engineering, and business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities. There is even a specialized discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms. There are several reasons why it is important to adhere to ethical norms in research. First, norms promote the aims of research , such as knowledge, truth, and avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error. Second, since research often involves a great deal of cooperation and
Openness Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas. Respect for Intellectual Property Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never plagiarize. Confidentiality Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records. Responsible Publication Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication. Responsible Mentoring Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions. Respect for colleagues Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly. Social Responsibility Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research, public education, and advocacy. Non-Discrimination Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity. Competence Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole. Legality Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies. Animal Care Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments. Human Subjects Protection When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.
Thesis Proposal
A thesis proposal is a skeletal framework that will aid the student or researcher in thesis making. It deals with and defines the problem, identifies the data or the materials to be used in resolving the problem, and describes methods
by which either the materials will be utilized or the data will be processed and interpreted. The thesis proposal is meant to present clearly and explicitly the problem to be researched and to discuss the research efforts of others who have worked on collateral or related problems. The aims of the thesis proposal is to convince your school that:
- there is a need for the research; it is significant and important;
- you are contributing something original to the field;
- the topic is feasible in terms of availability of funding, equipment, supervisors, and data;
- the research can be completed in the expected time period as set by the school/college/university.
- ethical issues have been considered and approval for the research has been given by the school/college/university’s ethics committee;
- the topic matches your interests and capabilities. What is the difference between an Undergraduate (Bachelor’s Degree)/Masters (Thesis) and a Doctorate (Dissertation) proposal?
Thesis and Dissertation
Sanchez (1998) states that a formal and lengthy research paper, especially one written in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an undergraduate (bachelor’s degree) or master’s degree is called a thesis. A dissertation is a more sophisticated research paper written in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a doctorate degree. Both must be prepared in conformity with the best standards.
Who is my audience?
The proposal will be presented as a written report and is usually presented in a seminar as well. It can be presented to a Graduate/Postgraduate Committee or to staff more directly involved in your candidature, such as your supervisor, co- supervisor and your school`s graduate or postgraduate coordinator.
Originality
Your work will make a worthwhile contribution to the field if it fulfills one or more of the following:
- it provides evidence to support or disprove a concept, theory, or model;
- it contributes new data or information, a new improved solution, analysis procedure or research methodology.
- it results in a new or improved concept, theory or model.
Knowing the nature of research, you are now ready to take the Self- progress Check test and check your answers later with those found at the back of the module.
(SEE NO. 3 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUDENT”)
Research 1A Module I Lesson 1
SELF – PROGRESS CHECK TEST
Test I. Identification: Identify the following. On the blank before each number, write the word or term that best describes the given statement.
_______________1. It is the continuous discovery and exploration of the unknown. It entails an investigation of new facts leading to the discovery of new ideas, new methods, or improvements. _______________2. A person who has an intrusive mind, one who is not satisfied until he or she has achieved his or her goal. _______________3. This type of research aims at adding to scientific knowledge. _______________4. This type of research applies theories in a field setting. _______________5. Other term for basic research.. _______________6. It is the first step in the research process. _______________7. It leads to the formulation of the theoretical background. _______________8. Refers to a skeletal framework that will aid the student or researcher in thesis making. _______________9. It is a formal and lengthy research paper, especially one written in partial fulfillment of the requirements for an undergraduate or master’s degree. _______________10. It is a more sophisticated research paper written in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a doctorate degree.
(SEE NO. 4 OF “INSTRUCTIONS TO THE STUIDENT”)
doing research, may also give the researcher insights into possible topics he can work on.
- Survey and critical reading of literature – Books, professional journals, and abstract of theses and dissertations constitute a valuable source of problems, usually recommended for further research. Reviews of research in specific fields almost always list specific areas for further study.
- Social, political, cultural and economic issues of society – media brings to public attention problems in the community and the nation which need solutions, such as human rights violations, population problem, health care, etcetera.
- Attendance at professional lectures, research colloquia and seminars – Speakers at these for a focus on crucial problems or issues of the times, such as the impact of technological and scientific advancement, curricular changes and development, national concerns.
- Association with professional researchers and organizations – A researchers can get leads to unsolved problems from those actively engaged in research project and from research centers/agencies.
Criteria for Selection of a Research Problem
Having found problems seemingly worth writing about, a researcher should next determine the feasibility of carrying out said topics. Among the various factors to be considered in selecting his problem are the following:
- Availability of subjects and relevant data – A researcher must make sure that he can get the subjects for his study and that he will have access to the needed data. He may have an interesting and significant topic in mind, but the data collection may be difficult due to lack of cooperation from authorities and subjects involved as well as confidentiality of certain records. It is advisable for him to have absolute control over the sources of data; otherwise, time, money and effort would be wasted.
- Time constraints – A researcher should choose a topic which can be completed according to schedule. A graduating student must finish his research report within the semester so he can graduate; a graduate student on scholarship has to finish his thesis within the period of his study leave.
- Constraints of funds or resources – A researcher cannot vary out his planned study without logistics. He has to spend a considerable amount for materials and supplies, statistical consultancy, data collection, thesis production and other expenses. It is imperative therefore that he should prepare a fair budget estimate beforehand to cover basic expenses and provide for contingencies.
- Capabilities of the researcher – A researcher should also consider his competence and technical expertise in conducting his study. He should not select a topic beyond his comprehension or ability; otherwise, he would be unable to undertake the study successfully. For instance, he should not select a topic that is very technical or that requires sophisticated statistical treatment which he has limited knowledge of.
- Interest and attitudes of the researcher – Another consideration in the selection of a research problem is a researcher’s interest and attitudes. The topic must be within his career interest and background so that he will be very much motivated to do the work.
- Interest of the administrator or superior of the researcher or his sponsoring agency. This factor applies to researchers who are on scholarship or whose research is funded. In this case, the researcher has to abide by the expressed directions given to him.
Characteristics of a Good Problem
Besides the foregoing factors and constraints in the selection of a problem or problem area, there are criterion measures that describe a good problem.
- It is of interest to the researcher. One of the first considerations in the choice of a topic is that the topic should be of great interest to the researcher. This factor is considered important because if the student is really interested in the problem, it will easy for him to surmount any problem that he may meet. It usually follows that when a student is interested in a topic, he has had a preliminary knowledge of what it is about. This is usually within his area of specialization. There are few instances, however, that a student embarks on a topic that is alien to him. In this case, if he is really that determined to pursue the topic, then by all means he should continue on it. His intense desire to finish his degree will enable him to go on. This interest will furnish the motivation and the enthusiasm in doing the difficult job.
- It is useful and significant in one’s field of specialization. Another characteristic of a good problem is that it is useful and significant in his field of specialization. The findings may have significant contribution to the researcher’s field of specialization and in all totality will make the research report worthwhile.
- It is novel. A further characteristic of a good problem is that it is novel. Experts assert that there is nothing new topics for research in the same that all fields have had some forms of research already. Although there are topics which are over studied, others have not been penetrated thoroughly yet.
- It invites a more complex research design. A good problem is that which invites more complex designing. For example if a researcher wishes to determine the empirical support of J. McCarthy’s marketing mix, descriptive analysis of data may include other variables, such as
Defining and Limiting a Problem
As soon as the topic has been chosen, the student should go to the next stage. This is now stating the problem into categorical ones. The problems as stated in the statement of the problem should be categorically answered.
- He may start defining some major terms or concepts. If for instance his selected topic is on portfolio management, then it is time to find out what the idea or what the topic means. He has too read books on economics or on business management and administration to know what it is. He has to know the components of the idea and the relevant studies that have been conducted on it. He has to review the former theories concerning portfolio management and the recent methods of doing it. He has to read books written by experts on this topic.
- He reads further literature. Concentration is held on what researchers and experts have said and done about the subject matter. This time he learns that investigations have been made on the subject matter and that it has deviated from the former policy of investing portfolio in one area, but rather through covariance one can determine other investments. The portfolio theory discourages investments in only one product, or discourages ”putting all eggs in one basket” but rather ”putting the eggs in many baskets.”
- He gets attracted to the instruments constructed by researchers. If the subject matter is still on portfolio management, he has to understand the methods used in the application of portfolio management. In portfolio analysis prices of stocks are used as the main source of data.
- He shapes up his specific questions. Inasmuch as the student is almost through with his survey of related literature both foreign and local and has chosen a definite variable, he has now gained insights into the formulation of the more specific questions which should been stated in Chapter 1. There are times even then, that a researcher repeats the work of others, but in different setting. This is allowable in research. The findings of the latter study may be different from the previous study, which makes the latter study unique and original. The questions should be specific and clear and are definitely answerable.
Writing the Title of the Investigation
There are some functions that the title serves among which are those below.
- It draws the summary form, the content of the entire investigation.
- It serves as a frame of reference for the whole research report.
- It enables the researcher to identify the title as his own.
- It helps other researchers to refer to the work for possible survey of the theory.
In view of these functions, the researchers should write the title clearly and specifically. The main concepts should be included and the variables being investigates be written as part of the title. In the case of studies where many variables are being studied there must be some ways to choose terms that will summarize these variables. If for example some characteristics of administrator are being looked into, the term, “personal variables” may be written in the title. Under this term the following variables may be included: sex, age, civil status, educational qualifications, place of residence, socio-economic status, sibling, rank, etc.
It also for clarity and specifity that the relationship among the variables be indicated. This relationship may be difference, effect, or of association as the case maybe. If to these specifications, the target population is added to then title, the title will achieve more specifity.
The inclusions of variables, relationships among the variables, and target population will invariability make the title long. In this connection, Baker and Schutz (1972) set the maximum of 20 Substantive words; function words are not included in the counting. Moreover, phrases such as “A study of,” “An investigation of,” ”An inquiry into,” “A comparison” are dropped from the titles since all these or dissertations are investigations. The writer of the present book agrees with Baker and Schutz in their demand for brevity in the title removing unnecessary words.
The list below presents some titles in the left column. The same titles have been improved and made more definite and specific, as shown in the second column. Original Better
- A study of the relationship between IQ, Socio- Economic Status, Personality, Work Values and Career Preference 1. IQ, Socio-Economic Status, Work Values, Personality and Career Preference of College Students of a certain University
- Assessments of Corporate Earning Power 2. Assessments of the Earning Power of a Certain Company in Metro Manila
- The Improvement of the Warrant Systems of the Philippine Army 3. An Empirical-based Strategy of the treasury Warrant System of the Philippine Army
- Determinants of Real State Salesmanship 4. Correlates of Real Estate Salesmanship – A Discriminant Analysis
- The Skill Mix Leadership Theory of Military Officers 5. The Skill Mix Theory of a Leader behavior in A Philippine Air Force Setting
- The Federal – Aid Highway Contracting Industry 6. The Structure and Performance of t he Federal-Aid Highway
