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COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT. DURING LATE. ADULTHOOD. • Beyond Piaget's theory. • Information-processing during late adulthood. SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL. DEVELOPMENT.
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PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT DURING LATE ADULTHOOD
**- Physical development
COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT DURING LATE ADULTHOOD
**- Beyond Piaget’s theory
SOCIAL AND EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT DURING LATE ADULTHOOD
**- Emotional development
When does old age begin? Should this depend on chrono- logical age or a life event such as retirement from work? Although many people maintain that old age is a state of mind, there are several life events that signal the beginning of late adulthood. These are tied to chronology, just as other life events are in previous stages of the life span. Age sixty-five is considered a milestone and the begin- ning of late adulthood. Reaching this age generally brings about retirement from work, eligibility for Social Security and Medicare benefits, income tax advantages, reduced fares and admission prices to leisure events, and special purchase or discount privileges. It is projected that by the year 2020, approximately 16.5% of the population will be sixty-five years of age or older (up from 4.1% in 1900, 8.1% in 1950, and 12.4% in 2000) (Himes, 2001). This percentage is expected to increase to 20.8% by 2060. Advances in modern medical care, better health prac- tices, improved nutrition, and other factors keep people in better health and living longer today (Himes, 2001). For these and other reasons, the period of late adulthood can be divided into five subcategories based on age by decade (Burnside, Ebersole & Monea, 1979). Please note that origi- nally there were only four subcategories; however, the cat- egory of centenarians has been added due to an increasing number of people living past one hundred. These subcate- gories are described below. Neugarten (1978) was among the first to recognize that not all individuals in late adult- hood are disabled or feeble. These age divisions help to create a more realistic and positive impression of the eld- erly. Upon reading about them, you may conclude cor- rectly that late adulthood comprises a diverse group of individuals. In this respect, it is like every other stage dis- cussed in this text. The young-old (sixty to sixty-nine years): Society expects people in their sixties to have less energy, responsibility, and independence in adulthood. This expectation demoralizes people and serves as a self-ful- filling prophecy. True, physical strength declines from earlier periods of the life span. Despite this limitation, many individuals in this age bracket are energetic, active in volunteer work, pursue hobbies and interests, lead vigorous lifestyles, and are in a state of good health (Kovar, 1986a, b; Kovar & LaCroix, 1987; Ries & Brown, 1991). Release from work and financial responsibilities gives them the chance to redirect their energies to activi- ties that please them. Self-improvement, sometimes even in the form of entrance into college degree programs, is actively pursued by many people this age.
The middle-aged old (seventy to seventy-nine years): Losses characterize this decade. Deaths of spouses and friends occur more frequently. Health problems become a preoccupation and restrict activities within and outside the home, which can further shrink a person’s social world. A significant challenge for people in their seventies is to retain the reintegration of personality accomplished fol- lowing retirement. The old-old (eighty to eighty-nine years): People in this age bracket find it increasingly difficult to adapt to the effects of the advanced aging process. Housing and physi- cal space are often obstacles to effective living. People in their eighties become more preoccupied with their memo- ries and interested in relating their past living experiences to others. Health problems become more frequent, severe, and of longer duration. Some people need to be cared for by others, which could be within a family member’s home, a nursing home, or some other supervised living situation. The very old-old (ninety to ninety-nine years): There are far fewer people in this age bracket, so we have very lit- tle accurate information about them. Obviously, health problems play a central role in their lifestyles. People in their nineties have very limited physical and social activity, but they appear to be happy, serene, and fulfilled (Bretschneider & McCoy, 1988). Centenarians (one hundred years and older): Cente- narians are a particularly hardy and diverse group of indi- viduals (Duenwald, 2003). They are known for their positive dispositions and lower rates of chronic illness and age-related disabilities that plague their younger, elderly peers. More women than men live to be one hundred; however, men tend to maintain greater health and mental capacity. Although many centenarians avoided smoking and obesity throughout life, others live to be one hundred or more despite suboptimal nutrition, little exercise, envi- ronmental toxins, and poor lifestyle choices (such as smok- ing). A few common themes among centenarians include remaining emotionally close and involved with loved ones throughout life, achieving financial security, and staying mentally active (e.g., reading, writing, and cross word puz- zles). Such extreme longevity seems to run in families, hinting that genetics may play a role. Researchers hope to identify the genetic factors that promote such longevity in order to develop drugs that will mimic these genetic effects in others. There are more women than men in all of the sub- categories of late adulthood (Himes, 2001). This differ- ence is because men have higher mortality rates than
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elastic properties. The flexible nature of collagen allows muscles, blood vessels, tendons, and other organs to transmit tension and experience compression without becoming deformed. We would not be able to move about in a normal way without this important molecule. The effects of aging may be closely related to the loss of collagen’s elastic properties. This can be observed throughout the body. Calcium salts, for example, begin to be deposited in tissues as people advance in age during middle and late adulthood. This sub- stance contributes to arteriosclerosis or “hardening of the arteries,” a condition that causes hypertension, related circulatory system disorders, and eventually death. Collagen changes in heart muscle tissue reduce the ability of this organ to perform properly.
Changes in Weight and Height The loss of weight in men that begins in middle adulthood continues through late adult- hood. Elderly women begin to lose weight in gradual increments during this stage. Decreasing physical activity, less food consumption, lower metabolism, poorer health, and related factors result in a reduction of muscle and tissue mass and hence weight. Reductions in weight also continue into late adulthood for both men and women (Abra- ham, 1979; Hegner, 1991). This loss in height is caused by compression of the spinal column and the softening of muscle and bone tissue. The changes also result in the characteristically stooped posture, with the head held forward and down from the body, seen in older people.
Changes in Bodily Systems As the body declines in physical functioning, numerous changes are occurring in bodily systems. THE TEETH Total loss of teeth occurs in a sizable minority of people between the ages of sixty-five and seventy-four (Cassel, 1990; Kelly & Harvey, 1979). Advanced age is asso- ciated with a higher incidence of periodontal disease and gingivitis , inflammations of gum tissue that contribute highly to tooth loss. Many of the dental problems of old age, however, are the result of earlier neglect. Dental problems contribute to poor eating habits that lead to malnutrition. Some eld- erly people do not get dentures to replace missing teeth for financial reasons; others have poorly fitting dentures. As a result, they may eat only foods that are easy to chew, eliminat- ing many vegetables, fruits, and meats from their diet. THE MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEMS The ability to move about becomes more restricted as aging advances because of changes in muscle and bone functioning. Muscles atrophy, reducing strength and restricting movement. Loss of elasticity in muscle tissue reduces flexibility, causing stiffness. Osteoporosis leads to easier bone breakage, kyphosis (“humpback” posture), and scoliosis (S-curved spinal column). Back pain increases in frequency and intensity, reflecting deterioration of the vertebrae (Hazard, 1990; Meuleman, 1989; Spence & Mason, 1987).
Gingivitis Inflammation of gum tissue that contribute highly on tooth loss.
Kyphosis A “humpback” posture.
Scoliosis S-curved spinal column.
Arthritis and rheumatism are the most prevalent musculoskeletal dis- orders among the elderly. Other con- ditions that often cause disability or discomfort at this stage are muscle cramps, bursitis in the shoulder or elbow, and gout (a metabolic disor- der that results from uric acid crys- tals forming at joint areas, especially in the feet).
THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYS- TEM The effects of aging on the heart and blood vessels that became increasingly apparent in middle adulthood worsen in late adulthood. There is further accumulation of fatty material in the heart muscle and in the arteries (atherosclerosis), the heart valves thicken, and arterioscle- rosis (hardening of the arteries) becomes more pronounced (Schrier, 1990; Spence & Mason, 1987). These conditions cause higher blood pressure, extra stress on the heart, and related cardiovascular problems, although regular exercise has been found to be beneficial in maintaining cardiovascular responsiveness (Thompson, Crist & Osborn, 1990; Van camp & Boyer, 1989). Decreased cardiac output further jeopardizes the health and well-being of the elderly (Spence & Mason, 1987). The slower heart rate of older people results in a decreased level of oxygen in the blood, which is why elderly people tire more easily and cannot endure stress as well as younger people. Coronary heart disease increases steadily during late adulthood. It is a leading cause of death at this stage of life. Coronary heart disease stems from a diminished supply of oxy- gen to the heart muscle through the blood caused by hypertension, atherosclerosis, or coronary aneurysm (ruptured blood vessel in the heart muscle). Over a long period of time, it can lead to heart attack or congestive heart failure.
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM The lungs have lowered capacity for inhaling and exhaling air in late adulthood (Horan & Brouwer, 1990; Spence & Mason, 1987). There are three causes of this reduced capacity. First, a change in collagen composition of the lungs causes them to become less elastic and thus less capable of expanding and contract- ing. Second, the diaphragm and chest muscles that help expand and contract the chest weaken. Third, age-related conditions such as scoliosis reduce chest capacity. Among the most common serious respiratory conditions among the elderly are cancer of the lungs, emphysema , and pneumonia. Lung cancer increases considerably during late
Muscular and skeletal systems become more restricted.
Gout A metabolic disorder that results from uric acid crystals forming at joint areas, espe- cially in the feet.
Emphysema A condition involving destruction of lung tis- sue that results in low- ered lung elasticity.
Pneumonia An inflammation of the lungs.
blockage of the urine flow. This encourages bladder infections and other complications. The most common types of cancer affecting this system in elderly men are cancer of the bladder and of the prostate gland. Women have more urinary system problems than men throughout life. Bladder infec- tions, such as cystitis, are frequent. In late adulthood, women are at increased risk for prob- lems of the vaginal area, prolapsed uterus, and cancer of the cervix, vulva, and breasts. Breast cancer is a leading cause of death among elderly women (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 2000).
THE BRAIN AND CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM Several developmental changes in the brain and central nervous system are related to advanced aging (Albert & Killiany, 2001; Spence & Mason, 1987; Vinters, 2001). First, the speed of nerve cell transmission slows with age. Second, brain and nerve cells diminish in number. These two factors, plus decreased transmission of oxygen to the brain, produce the slowing in reaction time that is commonly observed among elderly individuals. Reaction time affects perception and memory as well as the soundness of various reflexes. Progressively slower reaction times endanger the safety of the elderly people,
Frontal Lobe
Broca’s Area (Speech)
Auditory Cortex (Hearing) Central Fissure
Motor Cortex Somatosensory Cortex Parietal Lobe
Occipital Lobe
Visual Cortex
Wernicke’s Area (Understanding Speech)
Temporal Lobe Terminus of Lateral Fissure
FIGURE 9-1 LOCALIZATION OF CORTICAL FUNCTIONS IN THE FOUR LOBES OF THE LEFT CEREBRAL CORTEX
especially when they are driving. Many states now require extra testing for issuance of driver’s licenses to the elderly. Reduced availability of oxygen to the brain can contribute to other conditions that are troublesome to elderly individuals. Sleep disturbances, memory difficulties, and general irritability are related to decreased cerebral blood flow and to changes in the biochemical functioning of the brain in old age (Pollak, Perlick & Linsner, 1990). Insomnia is a fre- quent complaint among the elderly (Cassel, 1990). There is a general trend to need less sleep as age increases. A newborn infant may sleep about sixteen hours daily, whereas school-age children sleep about ten hours, and adults about eight. Elderly people may be able to sleep only five hours or so a night. CHANGES IN SENSATION, PERCEPTION, AND MOTOR SKILLS The ability to adjust and adapt in late adulthood partly depends on the capacity to receive and process information gained through the senses. Elderly people experience sensory deprivation as the sensory organs and the area of the brain that regulate them decline in efficiency. This deprivation has enormous implications for mental alertness and contact with reality. Vision Age-related changes in vision during late adulthood include an increase in the threshold of light needed to stimulate retinal cells; a decrease in acuity (sharpness of vision) due to changes in the lens, pupil size, and accommodation (focusing ability); and a decrease in adaptation to dark and light environments (Fozard & Gordon-Salant, 2001; Saxon & Etten, 1978; Spence & Mason, 1987). Elderly people can expect to experience several eye disorders that can limit visual abil- ity: “specks” in a visual field due to loose cells floating within the vitreous humor of the eyeballs; cataracts; glaucoma; macular degeneration , or a decreased blood supply to the retina, causing loss of visual sharpness when looking directly ahead but not in the periph- eral vision areas; and drooping eyelids. The risk of blindness increases considerably after age sixty, often because of glaucoma. Hearing Perhaps t he most significant sensory change during late adulthood is hearing loss. It sometimes leads to a complete withdrawal from social interaction. Hearing handicaps increase considerably with age (Rowland, 1980; Spence & Mason, 1987). About half of all people older than sixty-five have some hearing loss. These losses occur earlier in men than women, perhaps because men were more likely to be exposed to hazardous noise on the job. The loss of hearing for high-frequency sounds that was first noticed during middle adulthood continues. Loss of hearing in the mid to low-range frequencies becomes more likely with age. Many elderly people become deaf because of damage to the cochlea hair cells, hardening of the bones, and nerve damage to the structures of the inner ear that transmit sound waves to the brain (Fozard & Gordon-Salant, 2001).
Taste and smell Taste and smell perception decline in old age. Many elderly people remark that food tastes bland, and season it heavily with salt, pepper, and other condi- ments to improve its flavor. This loss of taste is attributed to a decrease in the number of taste buds and to the need for stronger stimulation to taste receptors in the mouth.
Macular degeneration A decreased blood supply to the retina, causing loss of visual sharpness when look- ing directly ahead but not in the peripheral vision areas.
related to the diets and eating habits of elderly people. These include a lower resistance to disease (Chavance, Herbeth & Fournier, 1989), poor absorption of nutrients (Knox, Kas- sarkian & Dawson-Hughes, 1991), elevated blood pressure (Lowik, Hoffman & Kok, 1991), and dehydration (Post, 1990). Additionally, diets that are high in fat and protein increase a person’s risk for several types of cancer, including colon, uterus, breast, prostate, kidney, and pancreas (Perls, 1999). To decrease a person’s risk for developing cancer or heart disease, a diet should emphasize fruit and vegetable consumption.
A NUMBER OF FACTORS WORK AGAINST ADEQUATE NOURISHMENT OF THE ELDERLY declining health and general well-being; tooth loss that affects the ability to chew many foods; declines in the senses of taste and smell that affect the enjoyment of food; inadequate fixed incomes that force people to lower food expenditures; physical disabili- ties that limit shopping and meal preparation; forgetting to eat meals; and loss of appetite (Cain, Reid & Stevens, 1990; Goodwin, 1989; Horwath, 1989; Zheng & Rosenberg, 1989). Many elderly people erroneously believe they are eating a balanced diet (Fischer, Crockett & Heller, 1991) because they have many misconceptions about nutrition. Mal- nutrition is not uncommon in late adulthood for this reason (Davies & Carr, 1991). Community nutrition programs promote improved nutrition among the elderly. These services, such as Meals on Wheels, are particularly helpful for the disabled elderly (Man- ning & Lieux, 1991). Vitamin and mineral supplements alleviate some nutritional problems among the eld- erly and improve health (Daly & Sobal, 1990; Perls, 1999). For example, vitamin E is an antioxidant and is believed to impede the development of stroke, heart disease, and Alzheimer’s. Selenium is believed to inhibit some forms of cancer. Fiber is thought to have numerous benefits including lower rates of colon cancer and cholesterol.
Common Illnesses and Disorders We have already covered many of the common illnesses previously in the chapter in regards to the decline and deterioration in the functioning of physical systems. However, we have yet to discuss cerebrovascular accidents, or strokes. Strokes are a leading cause of death among eld- erly people (Spence & Mason, 1987). A stroke occurs when a blood clot forms and causes a blockage in the amount of blood reaching the brain (Lewis, 1990; Spence & Mason, 1987). The clot can form in an artery of the neck or in the brain. When it does, brain tissue dies from lack of oxygen. An aneurysm , or rupture of an artery wall within the brain, can also cause a stroke. In this case, the blood clot forms within the brain. The severity and damage to the stroke victim’s brain varies according to where the hemorrhage or blockage occurred. Some people are only minimally affected; others experi- ence various degrees of paralysis, loss of motor functioning, speech, or combinations of these effects. These effects may or may not last for a lengthy period depending on the severity of injury to brain tissue. There are some early warning signs for a stroke (Saxon & Etten, 1978). A person may experience sudden, temporary weakness or numbness in the face, arm, or leg. He or she may temporarily have difficulty in speech or vision. Further, a person may experience
Strokes A cerebrovascular accident occurring when a blood vessel in the brain ruptures or is obstructed by a blood clot.
Aneurysm A rupture of an artery wall within the brain.
unexplained headaches, dizziness, or a change in personality or mental ability. Most peo- ple who have had a stroke in the initial years of late adulthood can expect a limited recov- ery through occupation, physical, and other kinds of therapy (Lewis, 1990). Occupational therapy is helpful, for example, in assisting stroke patients to develop new patterns of functioning within living environments.
MENTAL HEALTH One of the greatest fears people have about growing older is that they will lose their mental capacities—in popular terms, become senile. Senility is a catch- all term for what many believe are the inevitabilities of old age: loss of mental and emo- tional abilities to relate to reality, helplessness, and incontinence (Cook & Miller, 1985). Senility is technically referred to as dementia. There are numerous non-Alzheimer demen- tias that vary in cause and symptoms (Vinters, 2001). Dementia is a global term for a variety of an organic brain disorders related to brain cell impairment (Vinters, 2001). The symptoms of these disorders can include disorienta- tion to time, place, and/or people; memory loss; disturbances in thinking, especially in abstract thinking and reasoning; impairment of judgment; or inappropriate emotional responses (Saxon & Etten, 1978). Symptoms may appear slowly or rather suddenly. These symptoms are often regarded as idiosyncrasies of the elderly. Actually, people showing these signs are experiencing a type of mental illness that until recently was thought to be always irreversible. Organic brain syndrome occurs in two forms: (1) acute , which is reversible in many cases; and (2) chronic , which is not reversible. Acute brain syndrome responds to treatment that is directed toward correcting malnutrition, inflammations and infections, and various chemical imbalances in the body. Chronic brain syndrome is perma- nent and is responsible for many of the mental disorders associated with late adulthood. One of the more commonly known chronic organic brain disorders is Alzheimer’s disease. This degenerative disease is an area of active research (Vinters, 2001). Although symptoms can appear during middle adulthood, this condition is much more common
Senility Marked deterioration in mental organiza- tion characterized by confusion, memory loss, information-pro- cessing difficulties, and disorientation.
Dementia A type of organic brain syndrome that is a neuropsychiatric disorder related to brain cell impairment.
Acute A form of organic brain syndrome that is reversible in many cases.
Chronic A form of organic brain syndrome that is not reversible.
Alzheimer’s disease can begin in mid- dle adulthood but is much more com- mon after the age of sixty-five.
nosed each year. Around 85% of diagnosed cases are in individuals older than the age of sixty-five. There is no cure for Parkinson’s disease; however, medications that replace or mimic dopamine can be helpful in decreasing the symptoms. It is difficult to discuss Parkinson’s disease and not discuss the issue of stem cell research. This is a topic of much controversy in America today. Sadly, most people engaged in the debate are poorly educated about the types of stem cells and what has been accomplished with this research so far. A stem cell can be defined as a cell “capable of becoming another more differentiated cell type in the body … they can be used to replace or even heal damaged tissues and cells in the body” (stemcellresearchfacts.com, 2009). There are embryonic stem cells , umbilical cord blood stem cells, amniotic fluid stem cells, and adult stem cells. The controversy involves embryonic stem cells from which a human embryo must die in order to obtain the initial cells (Elizabeth Johnson, MD, personal communication, 2008). They can also be obtained from miscarried or aborted fetuses. Alternatively, adult stem cells can be obtained from bone mar- row, fat, the olfactory bulb, or reprogrammed skin cells without causing any harm to the donor. Umbilical cord blood and placental stem cells can be obtained after the birth of a child; and amniotic fluid stem cells can be obtained through methods similar to amniocente- sis. Stem cells from adults, umbilical cord blood, and amniotic fluid can be grouped under the umbrella term of somatic stem cells —allowing them to be easily differentiated from embry- onic stem cells (stemcellresearchfacts.com, 2009). Hence, there are many ways to obtain stem cells, of which one is controversial and morally reprehensible to a sizable segment of society. Some researchers have zeroed in on the use of embryonic stem cells in the develop- ment of treatments due to their ability to proliferate and differentiate into many types of cells—referred to as equipotentiality (Perin, Geng, & Willerson, 2003). However, in recent years, adult stem cells from the skin have been reprogrammed to have the same equipotentiality. Additionally, some stem cell types in the bone marrow and umbilical cord also show this flexibility (stemcellresearchfacts.org, 2009). Hence, it may be possible to avoid the whole moral and ethical controversy of embryonic stem cells by utilizing cer- tain somatic stem cells instead. Beyond the ethical/moral debate, there are other reasons that somatic stem cells may be preferable to embryonic stem cells (Elizabeth Johnson, MD, personal communication, 2008; stemcellresearchfacts.com, 2009; The Coalition for Research Ethics, 2008). These are highlighted in Table 9-1below: Given the recent breakthrough’s using somatic stem cells, it is the hope of many researchers that the debate and controversy of embryonic stem cell research can subside, and more energy and money can be spent on the more fruitful research with somatic stem cells. The question is if taxpayer dollars will indeed be spent funding the research that has produced results in treatments and cures, or if the money will be given to research that has (as of press time) produced only tumors and tissue rejection. One final aspect of mental health in late adulthood that must be mentioned is suicide. When people think of suicide, it is typically the image of a teenager tragically taking their own life. Statistically, however, elderly white males have a higher suicide rate than any other age group (Sahyoun, et al, 2001). This rate has increased dramatically in recent
Embryonic stem cells Stem cells obtained from human embryos that result in the death of the embryo.
Adult stem cells Stem cells obtained from patients or donors found in numerous tis- sues and organ sys- tems, even fat.
Umbilical cord blood and placental stem cells Stem cells found in the umbilical cord blood and placenta after birth.
Amniotic fluid stem cells Stem cells found in amniotic fluid.
Somatic stem cells Another term for adult stem cells.
Equipotentiality The ability for a cell to develop into any type of cell in the body.
years, with a 25% jump between 1981 and 1997. Mental health professionals are working to address this growing problem among the elderly.
PROMOTING WELLNESS Although health behaviors earlier in life have set an eld- erly person on a certain course, there are still some behaviors that older adults can adopt to improve health and increase longevity. Although sleep becomes difficult in older adult- hood, sleeping an average of seven to eight hours can improve mental health and ability (Shoenborn & Danchik, 1980). Not skipping breakfast, controlling weight, and exercis- ing are other activities that improve health. In general, the same health behaviors that are recommended throughout life still apply in late adulthood. Pause and Process:
a COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT DURING
LATE ADULTHOOD (^) A
LEARNING OBJECTIVES:
1. Characterize the cognitive development during late adulthood
EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS SOMATIC STEM CELLS
Difficult to induce growth into the desired cell type or tissue
Some have already begun specialization, so inducing growth into the desired cell type or tissue can be easier Immunogenic—because the cells come from embryos or fetuses with their own unique DNA, rejection of this donor tissue by the recipient is likely
Not immunogenic—if the stem cells are harvested from the recipients own body (e.g., skin, fat, bone marrow, etc.), rejection is not an issue. Tumorigenic – tend to produce or promote growth of tumors due to difficulty in controlling their proliferation and growth
Nontumorigenic – Tend not to produce or promote growth of tumors because it is easier to control their growth
No current disease treatments or cures have been developed using embryonic stem cells
Several dozen diseases have been treated or cured using somatic stem cells, including certain cancers, autoimmune diseases, cardiovascular diseases, ocular disorders, immunodeficiencies, neural degenerative diseases and injuries, blood disorders, metabolic disorders, liver disease, and other wounds and injuries.
TABLE 9-1 TWO TYPES OF STEM CELLS
no longer a “frontier” society where youth is valued for providing the strength, energy, and force needed to build civilization and industry. We are an advanced society, and thus more ready to appreciate the leadership and wisdom of older people. Late adulthood presents some formidable challenges to maintaining an active, stimu- lating mental life. Change in the ability to process information place people of advanced age at a disadvantage, though most are able to compensate for these losses in functioning. Moreover, most elderly people do not suffer from an organic brain condition, which is the prime factor limiting or terminating developmental progress.
BEYOND PIAGET’S THEORY: COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT DURING LATE ADULTHOOD
Optimization and Compensation In chapter eight we learned about selection, optimization, and compensation theory (SOC theory) , which stresses that adaptive aging involves maximizing gains and minimiz- ing losses (Baltes, Lindenberger & Staudinger, 1998). Selection refers to the process of choosing appropriate goals. These goals can be behavioral, cognitive, or socioemotional in orientation. Optimization refers to the attention, energy, effort, and persistence given to achieving the selected goal. In optimal conditions, the goal is to achieve one’s highest level of ability. Compensation involves mobilizing necessary resources to achieve the goal, par- ticularly in the face of losses or decline. As an individual ages, there is a shift in energy from growth to maintenance and regulation of decline in abilities. Research using the SOC theoretical framework has found that the focus of goals shifts with age (Freund, 2006). Freund (2006) conducted a study to compare the performance of young adults and older adults in regards to commitment and achievement when performing a sensorimotor task on a computer. The sensorimotor task had two conditions: an optimization condition and a compensation condition. In the optimization condition the stated goal was to perform the task as well as possible. In the compensation condition the stated goal was to pre- vent losses/decline in the task. Young adults showed greater persistence and motivation in the optimization task, whereas older adults showed greater persistence and motivation in the com- pensation task. This study supports the idea that goal focus and motivation shift with aging.
Wisdom Wisdom is not a well-defined or well-understood concept. In fact, until recent years it was a topic that was considered more in the realm of philosophy or theology than psychology. However, wisdom is an area of research that is gaining popularity in human development. Although there is no agreed upon definition of wisdom in human development, a leading theorist in the field conceptualizes it as involving “some balance of intelligence and cre- ativity” (Sternberg & Lubart, 2001, p. 515).
Selection, opti- mization, and compensation (SOC) theory A theory that exam- ines how selection, optimization, and compensation assist individuals in coping with the declines associated with aging. It is often considered a theory of successful aging.
There are three broad categories for approaches to studying and understanding wis- dom in human development: philosophical approaches , implicit-theoretical approaches, and explicit-theoretical approaches (Sternberg & Lubart, 2001). The philosophical approaches value the history of wisdom discourse in philosophy. They look to the ancient philosophers and analyze their conceptualizations of wisdom. Implicit-theoretical approaches “search for an understanding of people’s folk con- ceptions of what wisdom is” (Sternberg & Lubart, 2001, p. 501). Here, the goal is to develop a concept of wisdom that is seen as true by the average person, as opposed to some objective, quantifiable construct. The explicit-theoretical approaches largely seek to empirically study wisdom in an objective and scientific way (Sternberg & Lubart, 2001). However, the individual perspectives within this broad category vary in their methodology and conceptualizations of wisdom. Overall, wisdom is viewed as an important asset in constructing integrity in late adult- hood. Wisdom is the perspective the elderly need to understand their own reality and make sense of their lives. It is the product of introspection, and goes far beyond what peo- ple learn through education and reading.
Pause and Process:
INFORMATION-PROCESSING IN LATE ADULTHOOD
In middle adulthood we saw that many aspects of information-processing begin to decline. This trend continues in late adulthood. Declines in the speed of cognitive process- ing are similar to the slowdown in physical development in late adulthood (Birren, Woods & Williams, 1980). These declines parallel the changes taking place in the brain and cen- tral nervous system at this time of life. Speed in the ability to process information and in reaction time gradually declines, for example, because of less efficient functioning of the neurological and sensory bases of cognition as well as the desire of elderly people to be accurate (Madden, 2001; Salthouse, 1985).
Attention Speed of processing and the ability to control what one pays attention to are vital for daily functioning (Rogers & Fisk, 2001; Tun & Lachman, 2008). We already know that processing speed declines as the brain ages, but what about attention? When attention is assessed globally, attention for complex tasks appears to decline over time. However, college-educated adults perform complex attention tasks at levels for individuals who are ten years younger than them, but uneducated. Let us restate this. Have you ever seen the TLC show How to Look Ten Years Younger? In this show, people who look rather tired and worn for their age are given
Philosophical approaches Values the history of wisdom discourse in philosophy.
Implicit-theoreti- cal approaches Approach to the study of wisdom that inves- tigates people’s com- mon understanding of wisdom
Explicit-theoretical approaches Seek to empirically study wisdom in an objective and scien- tific way.
information into long-term memory; and (3) retrieving the information for use at a later time. Older people appear to be less efficient in the first step. Encoding is organizing information so that it can be stored in a particular way in the brain (e.g., associating a per- son’s name with an object). Elderly people are also much slower than younger people at retrieving information. Their memory searches take up longer periods of time as they gen- erate and think about alternatives and options. This slowdown is influenced by a person’s level of mental activity (Craik, Byrd & Swanson, 1987), for those who remain intellectu- ally stimulated seem to have fewer problems with retrieving information. Hence, if you want to slow down your own memory decline in old age, stay mentally active (e.g., read, do puzzles, write, etc.). The contributions of an enriched lifestyle to maintaining the neu- rological aspects of mental functioning cannot be overestimated (Hopson, 1984). Beyond decline in the process of memory, the picture is complex for what specific aspects of memory decline during adulthood. Episodic memory , working memory, source memory, and explicit memory all show decline in late adulthood (Backman, Small & Wahlin, 2001). Episodic memory is memory of specific life events. Working memory is the workbench where simultaneous cognitive processes can be attended to and handled (Baddeley, 1986, 1996; Kemper & Mitzner, 2001). Source memory is the ability to remember where you heard, saw, or learned something. Explicit memory is the information that you purposely try to recall, such as when you tell a friend about a movie you just watched. Semantic memory , or your general knowledge, appears to remain intact. However, it appears that it becomes more difficult to retrieve semantic knowledge in late adulthood (Backman, Small & Wahlin, 2001). Procedural memory is knowledge about how to per- form certain tasks, like riding a bike, driving a car, or even walking. This type of memory remains largely unchanged with aging (Backman, Small & Wahlin, 2001). Implicit mem- ory , or unconscious memory that guides your behavior, thoughts, and feelings, also appears to remain intact. Primary short-term memory is the conscious process of keep- ing information in short-term memory. This aspect of short-term memory appears to remain stable in late adulthood (Backman, Small & Wahlin, 2001).
Intelligence The aged person is often pictured as forgetful, intellectually slow, and indecisive. IQ scores among people of very advanced age (older than eighty) do show a constant decrease closely associated with the aging process. Scores on the portions of tests that measure problem-solv- ing and speed of performance show a greater decline than scores on the parts that measure verbal skills (Salthouse, 1985). Other information suggests that the lower level of function- ing in late adulthood is due more to encountering problems that are new and unfamiliar than to a general diminishment in problem-solving abilities (Labouvie-Vief & Schell, 1982). A dual-process model of intellectual changes has been proposed to explain what happens to mental functioning in late adulthood (Dixon & Baltes, 1986). This model describes two aspects of intelligence: (1) the mechanics dimension, which resembles fluid intelligence; and (2) the pragmatics dimension, which relates to practical thinking,
Episodic memory Specific life event memories.
Working memory The workbench where simultaneous cognitive processes can be attended to and handled.
Source memory The ability to remember where you heard, saw, or learned something.
Explicit memory The information that you purposely try to recall, such as when you tell a friend about a movie you just watched.
Semantic memory General knowledge.
Procedural memory Knowledge about how to perform certain tasks, like riding a bike or driving a car, or even walking.
Implicit memory Unconscious memory that guides your behavior, thoughts, and feelings.
Primary short-term memory The conscious process of keeping informa- tion in short-term memory.
applying knowledge and skills gained from experience, and wisdom in solving problems of everyday life. According to this model, elderly people decline in the mechanics dimension because the information that fuels this aspect of intelligence was gained in childhood and has lim- ited usefulness in old age. Pragmatic intelligence, however, is extremely useful at this time of the life span. It can be likened to the wisdom gained from experience. This dimension is much broader in scope than crystallized intelligence. In late adulthood, it enhances the quality of life and may well play an important part in helping elderly individuals achieve the sense of integrity discussed by Erikson. What about crystallized and fluid intelligence in old age? The trends in cognition that began in middle adulthood continue through the years of late adulthood. Crystallized intelligence skills remain stable or even increase during this stage. As you will recall, these are skills acquired through education, such as verbal comprehension. However, fluid intel- ligence (involved in processing information) declines during this stage.
Pause and Process:
LANGUAGE
Changes in Language Skills One aspect of our language ability is reading. In fact, reading can be quite demanding on our information-processing skills, for we must visually make sense of the written symbols we are seeing, comprehend the words that these symbols make up, assess the syntax and semantics of the sentence, integrate the sentences into a cohesive whole, and consider the context and pragmatics of what has been read (Kemper & Mitzner, 2001). Does aging impact our ability to read? If yes, how and why does aging impact our reading skills? Working memory, processing speed, and inhibition are three areas that decline in older adulthood. It has been widely researched what role these three areas play in contributing to declines in language-processing tasks such as reading (Kemper & Mitzner, 2001). Working memory can be conceptualized as “where active thinking occurs … Its operation involves combining information coming into sensory memory with information stored in long-term memory and transforming that information into new forms” (Siegler, 1998, p.67). Working memory is thought to have limited capacity and consists of different components for different types of information and processing (Kemper & Mitzner, 2001; Siegler, 1998). Declines in working memory are correlated with declines in reading (Kemper & Mitzner, 2001). Specifi- cally, declines in working memory appear to impede older adults’ ability to keep information in memory for future recall or application.
