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JOHN LOCKE
-“Labour of his body and the work of his Hands are properly his. What so ever then he removes out of the state that nature hath provided, and left it in, he hath mixed his labour with, and joined to it something that is his won and thereby makes it his property”. ● Born in a Somerset village, England, in the summer of 1632. ● Father of Liberalism ● Published major works including " Essay Concerning Human Understanding " and " The Letter on Toleration" (1689). ● Died in 1704, having left a significant impact on philosophy, particularly in the areas of liberalism, constitutionalism, and empiricism. ● Two Treatises of Government" (1689) argued for constitutional government and natural rights. ● " An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" (1690) laid the foundation for modern empiricism. ● Advocated for the separation of church and state, the social contract, and the right to rebellion against unjust governments. ● Influenced Enlightenment thinkers like Rousseau and Voltaire, and later empiricists such as Hume and Berkeley. ● Supported early feminist thinkers like Mary Astell and Catherine Macaulay. ● Emphasised the importance of consent, resistance, and toleration. ● Viewed as a foundational figure in the development of liberal constitutionalism and representative democracy.
INFLUENCES ON LOCKE
● Locke was a witness to a glorious revolution which restored monarchy in England. He was a witness to the Bloodless Revolution which was peaceful. That is why he developed a positive attitude towards human nature in his theories. ● In addition, Locke was influenced by a number of earlier and contemporary thinkers like Filmer and Hobbes. ● Locke was influenced by Earl of Shaftsbury. Through this contact he gained experience in politics. Locke had a deep impact of Hooker and borrowed the theory of consent and the theory of contract from him.
STATE OF NATURE & SOCIAL CONTRACT
● State of nature is conceived as a state prior to the establishment of political society. Unlike Hobbes, In Locke's version it is pre-political, but not pre-social, as men are social by nature. The state of nature, far from being a war of all, is a state of "peace, goodwill, mutual assistance and self-preservation. ● (Locke asserts that all human beings are equal, in the moral sense and every individual is endowed certain natural rights such as right of life, liberty and property. ) ● Locke’s description of state of nature was not as gloomy and pessimistic as Hobbes’. The individuals in the Lockean state of nature were naturally free and became a political subject out of their free will. ● The State of Nature is governed by Natural Law, which is reason given by God, teaching that all people are equal and independent, and no one should harm another in their life, health, liberty, or possessions ● Men are by nature rational beings, impelled by their inner nature to treat humanity.but, still there are a few persons who set aside the rules of morality in pursuance of their self interest. In the absence of any established authority in the state of nature, it becomes very difficult to deal with such offenders. ● According to him in the state of nature man enjoys rights of life, liberty and property because of the presence of reason in him. Hence,. Any law made by the state which deprives its men from rights to life, liberty and property cannot be considered as fair, just and reasonable. ● If men become judges of their own case, justice would never be served. In such a case, the state of nature proves to be inconvenient. In order to rectify this defect, man abandons the state of nature and enters into civil or political society through the means of a contract. ● When men enter the contract , they surrender their natural right to be judges in case of breaches of law. This power is now vested in the hands of community rather than the individuals. However, they still retain their natural rights to life, liberty and property.
Locke's social contract theory consists of several stages:
1. Unanimous Agreement: Individuals must unanimously agree to form a community and pool their natural powers to protect each other's rights. 2. Majority Vote : The community must then agree by majority vote to establish legislative and other institutions. 3. Taxation Consent : The community must also agree, either personally or through representatives, to any taxes imposed.
Stages of Contract:
- Creation of Society: Society is formed first through mutual agreement.
- Setting Up Government: Establishing government is a secondary step following the creation of society.
instance, if a person cultivates a piece of land, the produce from that land becomes their property because their labour has been invested in it. This labour transforms the natural resource into a personal asset. ● The exclusive right to property, according to Locke, does not require the consent of others. When someone mixes their labor with a resource, they claim ownership over it directly through their efforts. This process justifies individual ownership and excludes others from claiming the same property without the owner's consent. ● Locke extends his property rights theory to the realm of taxation. He asserts that the government should only take what is necessary to perform its functions, such as maintaining order and protecting the community. This aligns with the idea that property rights should be minimally infringed upon by the state. ● The government has no authority to take more from individuals than what is required without the explicit consent of the property owners. This consent is critical to ensure that taxation does not become a form of unjust expropriation. Property in both person and possessions is a right that belongs to every human being. It is a right that all people possess whether they are in a state of nature or in political society. Locke thus says that, “the great and chief end of men’s uniting into commonwealth, and cutting themselves under government is the preservation of their property”. Some scholars have argued that Locke’s second treatise provides not only a theory of limited government but a justification for an emerging capitalist system as well.
Nature of Consent
● Consent, for Locke, is a cornerstone of political obligation and the legitimacy of governmental authority. The idea is that individuals agree to form societies and governments through a social contract, thereby legitimizing the rules and regulations imposed by the state.
- Express Consent- This form of consent is given explicitly, such as through formal agreements or declarations. For instance, citizens may express their consent by voting or signing contracts.
- Tacit Consent- This is implied consent, inferred from actions rather than direct statements. For example, by living within a society and enjoying its protections and benefits, individuals tacitly consent to obey its laws and accept its governance. ● Consent is essential for the formation of civil society. According to Locke, individuals in a state of nature come together to form a society by collectively agreeing to establish a government that will execute natural law, protect their rights, and maintain order. This foundational consent is what gives legitimacy to the governmental structure and its laws.
LOCKE ON TOLERANCE AND RESISTANCE
Religious Toleration
Locke is best known for his advocacy of religious toleration. His seminal work, "A Letter Concerning Toleration" (1689), argues for the separation of church and state and the protection of religious freedom.
- Pluralism and Peace : Locke believed that religious toleration was necessary for peace and social stability. He argued that religious conflicts were a major source of social unrest and that toleration would reduce these conflicts.
- Freedom of Conscience : Locke emphasized the importance of individual freedom of conscience. He believed that faith and belief cannot be compelled by force and that individuals should be free to follow their own religious convictions without interference from the state or other individuals.
- Limits of Toleration : While advocating for broad religious toleration, Locke did impose some limits. He argued that toleration should not extend to atheists, as he believed they could not be trusted to uphold oaths and contracts. He also excluded Catholics, fearing their allegiance to a foreign pope could undermine the sovereignty of the state.
● Locke fails to provide any scientific basis for his views on human nature. His assumption that humans are peace-loving need not be true always. The world has witnessed numerous wars and violence which were initiated by the cruel nature of humans. ● In the words of Professor Wayper, “His views are nothing like so profound ad certainly no like as consistent as that of Hobbes”. ● Idealized View : Locke's state of nature is often seen as overly optimistic. He envisions a state where individuals are generally reasonable and abide by natural laws. Critics argue that this is an idealized view and doesn't account for the more selfish and aggressive aspects of human nature. ● Lack of Historical Evidence : There is little historical evidence to suggest that a state of nature as Locke describes ever existed. Anthropological studies indicate that human societies have always had some form of structure and governance, however rudimentary. ● Overly Simplistic : The state of nature is a simplistic concept that doesn't account for the complexity of human social interactions and the variety of social organizations that have existed throughout history. ● Labor Theory Limitations : Locke’s labor theory of property rights assumes that mixing one's labor with a resource justifies ownership. However, critics argue that this does not necessarily follow logically. Just because someone works on a resource doesn't inherently mean they have the right to own it exclusively. ● Exclusion of Collective Ownership : Locke's theory doesn't adequately address the concept of collective or communal ownership, which has been a common practice in many societies. This can be seen as a limitation, as it doesn't recognize the variety of ways property can be owned and used. ● Resource Scarcity : Locke assumes that there is an abundance of resources that individuals can claim through their labor. In reality, resources are often scarce, and this scarcity can lead to conflict and inequality, which Locke’s theory does not fully address. ● Ambiguity of Tacit Consent : Locke's concept of tacit consent is highly ambiguous. Critics argue that simply living in a society and benefiting from its protections does not equate to genuine consent. Many individuals might not have the means or freedom to leave a society, which complicates the notion of tacit consent. ● Impracticality in Large Societies : In modern, large-scale societies, it is impractical to assume that every individual can or will explicitly give their consent to every law or governmental action. This raises questions about the applicability of Locke’s consent theory in contemporary contexts. ● Consent and Coercion : The assumption that people living under a government have consented to its authority can be problematic. Many individuals are born into a system without a real choice, and some might comply out of necessity rather than genuine agreement. This blurs the line between consent and coercion. ● Individualistic Focus : Locke’s theories are heavily individualistic, focusing on personal rights and property. Critics argue that this neglects the importance of community and collective welfare, which are essential aspects of a functioning society.
● Eurocentric Perspective : Locke’s ideas reflect a Eurocentric perspective that may not be universally applicable. Different cultures and societies have varied understandings of property, governance, and social contracts, which Locke’s framework does not fully encompass. ● Ignoring Power Dynamics : Locke’s theories often ignore the power dynamics at play in society. The concept of consent assumes a level playing field, where all individuals have equal power to agree or disagree. In reality, power imbalances can significantly affect how consent is given and interpreted.
CONTRIBUTIONS
● His views on property prove that he supports possessive individualism. Possessive individualism means man possesses whatever he has due his own labour and efforts and hence he has no obligation to pay back to the society. ● Locke put forward the concept of natural rights to the political theory. This was his notable contribution according Professor Dunning. ● Locke emphasised on the doctrine of supremacy of community. Rousseau later developed his theory of General Will based on this. ● He worked on separation of powers which provided the basis for Montesquieu to propose his theory. ● Utilitarianism is another quality that can be derived in Locke’s theories. He emphasised on general happiness of the people. ● He laid prominence in principles of toleration and secularism. ● He mooted for liberal ideas on government which is currently followed in the USA. ● His ideas also sowed seeds for the democratic type of government. Sources: ● egyankosh notes on John Locke ● Nikhil Gowda Psir Notes ● O. P Gauba - Introduction to Political thoery By Khushi Raj Dept. Of Political Science, Patna women's college(autonomous), Patna University
