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1
Introduction to
the Curriculum
Ideologies
F
or almost a hundred years, educators have been at war with each other over what the nature of the American school curriculum should be. Underlying this war are four visions of what the school curriculum should look like. These visions are based on four curriculum ideologies—or curriculum philosophies—that advocate very dif- ferent purposes for schooling and very different methods of achieving those respective purposes. These four visions of schooling have both stimulated improvement in American schools and caused conflicts that have inhibited progress in the development of the school curriculum. The competition between the four visions of education has stimulated advocates of each to develop increasingly powerful curricula, instructional methods, and research bases. The result is improved instruction for children. The competition between the four visions of education has also made it difficult for educators and the general public to reach a consensus on the nature and purposes of the American school curriculum. Seemingly irresolvable disagreements include the reading controversies over whether it is more important to teach decoding (phonics) or comprehension (whole language), the mathematics disputes over whether it is more important to teach mathematical understanding or mathematics skills, and the history conflicts over whether it is more important to teach knowledge of the past or to build strategies for critically analyzing and reconstructing society in the future. These dis- putes have recently become so fierce that they have become known as the reading wars, the math wars, and the history wars. Inability to appreciate differences in vision for the
2 ❖ CURRICULUM THEORY school curriculum and reach a consensus about critical philosophical and pedagogical issues has made systematic improvement of the curriculum difficult. Each of the four visions of curriculum embodies distinct beliefs about the type of knowledge that should be taught in schools, the inherent nature of children, what school learning consists of, how teachers should instruct children, and how children should be assessed. Each vision has its own value system; its own purposes of educa- tion; its own meanings for words (e.g., Does knowledge consist of understandings, skills, meanings, or values?); its own heroes, whose beliefs it repeats; and its own vil- lains, whose beliefs it rails against. Within this book, these visions are labeled the Scholar Academic ideology, the Social Efficiency ideology, the Learner Centered ideology, and the Social Reconstruction ideology. Each ideology has a long history and has been known by a variety of names. For example, at different times during the last hundred years, the Learner Centered ideology has been called “progressive education,” “open education,” “child-centered education,” “developmentally appropriate practice,” and “constructivism.” These ide- ologies can influence people’s ways of thinking about curriculum in the same powerful ways that their political beliefs can influence their stances on political issues. The existence of these four ideologies causes difficulty for newcomers to the field, who are usually unaware of them and, as a result, often have difficulty determining how to philosophically orient themselves as subscribers to different ideologies pressure them for their allegiance. The existence of these four ideologies also causes concern among veteran teachers, who are frequently told by school administrators to embrace one curriculum fad after another—fads that often require major revision of the con- ceptual frameworks upon which teachers build their instruction. These curriculum philosophies frequently cause disagreement among curriculum workers, particularly curriculum developers, about what the nature of the curriculum they create and schools adopt should be. The competition among advocates of these four curriculum ideologies for influence on the school curriculum also causes concern—sometimes leading to the formation of political initiatives—among members of the general public who are interested in how their children and grandchildren are being educated, what goes on in our schools, and the ways in which schooling is influencing children’s beliefs and social orientation. The best example of these political initiatives is perhaps the curriculum wars that took place in California between 1985 and 2000, during which two groups with competing ideologies had each other’s favored curriculum programs removed from the list of state-funded curriculum materials and replaced by their own programs—after lengthy, well-publicized political battles (Becker & Jacob, 2000; Jackson, 1997a, 1997b; Pearson, 2004; Schoenfeld, 2004; Wilson, 2003). The existence of these competing visions of what good education consists of and the corresponding lack of understanding regarding these visions among educators, curriculum workers, and the general public causes confusion and discomfort among Americans and within American education. As individuals, we are constantly disagree- ing with each other—and with ourselves—about what we should be doing in our schools. As members of politically oriented groups, we lobby state departments of education over which textbooks or instructional programs should be used in our states. As a nation, we issue one prestigious report after another, many of them
4 ❖ CURRICULUM THEORY
Your Beliefs About Curriculum
This book is about both the nature of American education and the beliefs individuals have regarding the school curriculum. As a result, it is highly suggested that readers complete a short inventory that allows them to visually graph their curriculum beliefs. (The inventory and instructions for graphing its results are located in the Appendix.) I recommend that you complete the inventory now, before reading further, and again after you finish reading this book. The last chapter in this book discusses how and why educators change their curriculum ideologies over time. Seeing how your beliefs about curriculum change as you read this book will help you understand that chapter.
The Curriculum Ideologies
The Social Efficiency ideology, the Scholar Academic ideology, the Learner Centered ideology, and the Social Reconstruction ideology are the names given to the curricu- lum ideologies examined within this book. The Scholar Academic Ideology Scholar Academics believe that over the centuries our culture has accumulated important knowledge that has been organized into the academic disciplines found in universities. The purpose of education is to help children learn the accumulated knowledge of our culture: that of the academic disciplines. Acquiring an understand- ing of an academic discipline involves learning its content, conceptual frameworks, and ways of thinking. Teachers should be mini-scholars who have a deep understand- ing of their discipline and can clearly and accurately present it to children. Scholar Academics assume that the academic disciplines, the world of the intellect, and the world of knowledge are loosely equivalent. The central task of education is taken to be the extension of the components of this equivalence, both on the cultural level, as reflected in the discovery of new truth, and on the individual level, as reflected in the enculturation of individuals into civilization’s accumulated knowledge and ways of knowing. An academic discipline is viewed as a hierarchical community of people in search of truth within one part of the universe of knowledge. The hierarchical communities consist of inquirers into the truth (the scholars at the top of the hierarchy), teachers of the truth (those who disseminate the truth that has been discovered by the scholars), and learners of the truth (students whose job it is to learn the truth so that they may become proficient members of the discipline). The aim of education for Scholar Academics is the extension of their disciplines by introducing young people into them. This involves making youth members of a dis- cipline by first moving them into it as students and then moving them from the bottom of the hierarchy toward its top. Extension of a discipline is accomplished through the transmission of its knowledge and ways of thinking to students. The curriculum pro- vides the means of this transmission, and it derives both its meaning and its reason for existence from the academic disciplines. Scholar Academics’ major concern is to con- struct curriculum in such a way that it reflects the essence of their discipline.
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Curriculum Ideologies ❖ 5 The Social Efficiency Ideology Social Efficiency advocates believe that the purpose of schooling is to efficiently meet the needs of society by training youth to function as future mature contributing members of society. Their goal is to train youth in the skills and procedures they will need in the workplace and at home to live productive lives and perpetuate the func- tioning of society. Subscribers to the Social Efficiency ideology believe the essence of learners lies in their competencies and the activities they are capable of performing. Youth achieve an education by learning to perform the functions necessary for social productivity. Teachers manage instruction by selecting and using educational strategies designed to help learners acquire the behaviors prescribed by their curriculum. Instruction is guided by clearly defined behavioral objectives, and learners may require a lot of prac- tice to gain and maintain mastery of skills. Social Efficiency educators’ first job is to determine the needs of society (or another more specialized client). The things that will fulfill these needs are called the terminal objectives of the curriculum. Educators must then find the most efficient way of producing a product—the educated person—who meets the terminal objectives of the curriculum and thus fulfills the needs of society (or the client). Social Efficiency ideologists believe the most efficient achievement of a curricu- lum’s terminal objectives results from applying the routines of scientific procedure to curriculum making. Central to Social Efficiency conceptions of scientific procedure is the assumption that change in human behavior (that is, learning) takes place within a fairly direct cause-effect, action-reaction, or stimulus-response context. This concep- tion requires Social Efficiency educators to predetermine the relationships between cause and effect, action and reaction, and stimulus and response, and to predict the causes, actions, and stimuli (that is, the learning experiences) that will lead to the desired effects, reactions, and responses. Thus, three things that play an important role in the Social Efficiency ideology are the concept of learning (or change in human behavior), the creation and sequencing of learning experiences (the causes, actions, and stimuli which lead to the desired effects, reactions, and responses), and account- ability to the client for whom educators work. The Learner Centered Ideology Learner Centered proponents focus not on the needs of society or the academic disciplines, but on the needs and concerns of individuals. They believe schools should be enjoyable places where people develop naturally according to their own innate natures. The goal of education is the growth of individuals, each in harmony with his or her own unique intellectual, social, emotional, and physical attributes. Learner Centered educators believe people contain their own capabilities for growth, are the agents who must actualize their own capabilities, and are essentially good in nature. In addition, people are viewed as the source of content for the curricu- lum; their ends are considered to be the appropriate ends for the curriculum. This leads Learner Centered advocates to treat the concept of growth as the central theme of their endeavors. Growth of learners in terms of their unfolding in conformity
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Curriculum Ideologies ❖ 7 Social Reconstructionists is to rectify this situation by eliminating from their culture aspects that they consider undesirable, substituting in their place social values that they consider desirable, and by doing so to reconstruct their culture so that its members will attain maximum satisfaction of their material, spiritual, and intellectual wants. Historical Perspective on the Ideologies Each of the curriculum ideologies has a history. Recognition of the traditions out of which each grew gives an important sense of perspective. Although the origin and evolution of each ideology provides a fascinating study in itself, this book will concern itself with the ideologies only as they have existed since 1880. The Scholar Academic ideology will be examined by exploring the period of curriculum development that resulted from the work of Charles Eliot and the Committee of Ten in the 1890s, the “new curriculum” movement of the 1960s, and E. D. Hirsch’s cultural literacy move- ment at the end of the 20th century. The nature of the Social Efficiency ideology will be explored by examining the tradition linking Franklin Bobbitt, Ralph Tyler, and the Race to the Top Fund (and its predecessor, the No Child Left Behind Act). Tracing the evolution of the Learner Centered ideology will lead us to an examination of the con- tinuity of belief uniting the work of Francis Parker in the 19th century, the progressive education movement in the first half of the 20th century, and the open education, developmentally appropriate practice, and constructivist movements of the last 50 years. Examination of the Social Reconstruction ideology will include an investigation of the tradition, publicly initiated by George Counts, that has evolved into the present social justice movement. My intent is to help readers understand the ideologies within the richness of the traditions out of which they grew rather than view them solely as they are presently manifested.
Curriculum Workers
People who work on curriculum engage in many different types of endeavors. The ideologies elaborated in this book are relevant to the endeavors of the following cur- riculum workers. Curriculum practitioners use curricula within the instructional arena and super- vise its use in schools. Classroom teachers who plan instruction using social studies textbooks, implement a reading program, or derive a science program from curricu- lum ideas offered on a Web site are curriculum practitioners. School administrators who make curriculum adjustments to meet state or national curriculum standards, implement team teaching, encourage teachers to utilize a particular instructional methodology, or insist on the use of a particular textbook series are also curriculum practitioners. Curriculum disseminators make known to curriculum practitioners the existence of curricula and the proper methods of using them. A curriculum disseminator might be a textbook salesperson, a school district subject matter specialist, a college professor offering a methods course, or a workshop leader for a publishing company or profes- sional organization (such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics).
8 ❖ CURRICULUM THEORY Curriculum evaluators collect, examine, and assess data for the purpose of report- ing on the effectiveness, efficiency, and worth of the endeavors and creations of other curriculum workers. Curriculum evaluators might be employed by a private testing service, the central administration of a school district, a government-monitoring agency, a publishing company, or a curriculum development group. Their reports are meant to aid in decision making concerning curriculum materials, student achieve- ment, teacher effectiveness, and school accountability. Curriculum advocates are educators and members of the general public who are concerned about and attempt to influence what is taught in schools and how it is taught. A curriculum advocate might be a parent attempting to influence the curricu- lum decisions of his child’s school, a citizen trying to influence the curriculum deci- sions of the state department of education, or a politician (perhaps a president, governor, or legislator) attempting to implement her curriculum ideas through the political process. Curriculum developers intentionally create curriculum materials and strategies for others to use in the instructional arena. The important ideas here are “for others to use” and “instructional.” Curriculum developers can be textbook writers, teachers who work on school curriculum committees, curriculum specialists who work for private educational organizations, or concerned citizens who design instructional materials for homeschooling. Curriculum theorists examine the philosophical and ideological underpinnings of existing curricula; study how curricula are used, disseminated, created, and evaluated; study the endeavors and intents of other curriculum workers; speculate on what cur- ricula should accomplish; probe the “whys” of their own examinations; and write books such as this one, all for the purpose of contributing to the general body of knowledge about effective curriculum practice, dissemination, advocacy, development, and evaluation. This book is about the ideological stances of all of these types of curriculum work- ers. However, the curriculum ideologies described in this book can often be best observed in the programmatic intents and endeavors of people as they engage in the process of curriculum creation (or the planning of instruction). As a result, this book will frequently focus on the endeavors of curriculum developers as though they typify and represent the curriculum ideologies of a much broader spectrum of curriculum workers. Thus, discussion of the beliefs of curriculum workers in general will often be intertwined with descriptions of the particular endeavors of curriculum developers.
The Nature of the Curriculum Ideologies
In this book, the curriculum visions, philosophies, doctrines, opinions, conceptual frameworks, and belief systems of educators are called curriculum ideologies. An ideology is a collection of ideas, a comprehensive vision, a way of looking at things, or a worldview that embodies the way a person or a group of people believes the world should organized and function. It is “a certain ethical set of ideals, principles, doctrines, myths or symbols of a social movement, institution, class, or large group
10 ❖ CURRICULUM THEORY Ideology is used to distinguish between motives that underlie behavior and articulated beliefs. This book is concerned about the former and not the latter. The problem addressed by this distinction is that expressed intent (or philosophy) is frequently con- tradicted by actual behavior. Educators dealing with curriculum are often not conscious of the major assumptions underlying their actions, just as adherents of many political groups are often not conscious of the motives and impulses that drive them to act within the approved modes of behavior sanctioned by their political group. A distinc- tion needs to be made between the visions, myths, doctrines, opinions, worldviews, and belief systems motivating curriculum workers to behave as they do and the verbaliza- tions that curriculum workers make. Thus, I use the word ideology. The other reason behind my use of the phrase curriculum ideology relates to my choice of the word curriculum. It is necessary to distinguish between the curriculum domain, the instructional domain, the epistemological domain, the learning theory domain, the psychoanalytic domain, the developmental domain, and so on, when dis- cussing the endeavors of persons interested in curriculum. This is because people often behave differently when working within these different areas of discourse, just as teachers often relate differently to their own children and to their students. A person often behaves differently when acting on (or thinking about) curriculum issues from how he or she acts (or thinks) as a psychologist, parent, philosopher, or epistemologist. The conceptual systems people use are often tied to the role in which they see them- selves functioning. For example, educators often behave differently and use different conceptual frameworks when they plan instruction and deal with curriculum issues versus when they execute instruction and interact with children. Thus, curriculum ideologies refer to people’s endeavors while they engage in curriculum activity or think about curriculum issues. Curriculum ideologies do not refer to all beliefs systems of people, or even to all belief systems related to education. The description of the ideologies presented in this book emerged from an analysis of the actions and beliefs of American educators (particularly curriculum developers) regarding curriculum during the 20th century. This framework for examining teacher beliefs is supported by the professional literature on curriculum positions in the U.S. Table 1.1 shows the alignment of the classification schemes of nine recent curriculum theorists. Almost all theorists have identified positions similar to the Scholar Academic, Social Efficiency, Learner Centered, and Social Reconstruction positions. Two schemes do not identify the Social Reconstruction position; however, this is not surprising, because Social Reconstruction just reemerged as a distinct position in about 1990. For example, in 1986 and 1987, Schubert distinguished only three positions, while in 1996 he revised his classification scheme to include four positions. Only one scheme does not identify the Social Efficiency position. Four schemes distinguish two positions where other schemes identify only one position. Note also that even though the terms used to label positions may differ, the underlying positions are the same. Terminology has frequently changed over the last century. For example, different labels for the Learner Centered ideology in the U.S. have included child study (1890s), progressive education (1910–1950), open education (1965–1980), developmentalist (1970–1990), and constructivist (1990–present).
11 Schiro (2013) Eisner (1974) McNeil (1977) Schubert (1996) Fenstermacher & Soltis (1992) Posner (1992) Zeichner (1993) Joseph et al. (2000) Ellis (2004) Kliebard (2004) scholar academic academic rationalism academic intellectual traditionalist liberationist traditional & structure of the disciplines academic constructing under standing & connecting to the cannon knowledge centered humanist social efficiency technology & cognitive processes technological social behaviorist executive behavioral social efficiency training for work and survival social efficiency learner centered self actualization humanist experientialist therapist experiential & cognitive develop- mentalist developing self and spirit progressive & learner centered child study social reconstruction social reconstruc- tionism social reconstructionist critical reconstructionist social recon- structionist confronting the dominant order & deliberating democracy society centered social-meliorist Table 1. Comparison of curriculum classification schemes.
Chapter 1 Introduction to the Curriculum Ideologies ❖ 13 described, compared, or distinguished from each other. Thus, although Bruner’s struc- ture of the disciplines approach, Piaget’s epistemological approach, the broad fields approach, the correlated fields design, Mortimer Adler’s Academic Rationalism, and many variations on the core curriculum approach are all closely related to the Scholar Academic ideology, they are not separately described or compared, for the many ver- sions of this general approach to education are best portrayed by the interpretation of the Scholar Academic ideology herein described. The reader should note and compare the ideal types herein delineated to currently emerging variations, as well as historically influential ones. The four ideologies presented in this book—the ideal types—have been chosen because they represent the current range of beliefs among those interested in curricu- lum, because each has clearly identifiable roots in and influences on American educa- tion, because they offer dramatic alternatives to each other, and because they seem to be prototypes around which educators cluster—the density of the set of all educators in Figure 1.1b being highest around ideal types SE, SA, LC, and SR. Because the cur- riculum ideologies represent ideal types abstracted from reality, and not reality itself, even though educators will be spoken of as believing or behaving in accordance with certain beliefs, it is difficult to find educators who exactly fit the characterizations; and even though the expressed thoughts and observable behavior of most educators approximate the characteristics of only one of the ideal types, many educators exist whose behavior is a combination of the characteristics of more than one ideal type. Activities designed to extend what is written here and provide additional insight into the ideology are located on the SAGE website at www.sagepub.com/schiroextensionactivities.
