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MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION
Course Content:
Meaning and nature of Social Psychology Scope and development of Social Psychology Methods and their Applications: Experimental Method, Observation Method, Correlation Method, Interview and Questionnaire. Sociometry Relationship of Social Psychology with other disciplines
Definition
💡 Social psychology can be defined as the discipline that studies how a
person’s thoughts, feelings and actions affect and are affected by real, implied or imagined presence of others (Feldman,1985).
It is a systematic study of the nature and causes of human social behavior. In other words, social psychology is the scientific discipline, which seeks to understand the nature and causes of behaviors and experience of the individuals in social situations.
Meaning
Social psychology is a scientific study of how people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior are influenced by stimuli that are actual, imagine, or implied. We are prone to social influence even when no stimuli physically present in front of us such as cultural norms. Social psychologist state that human behavior is the result of the interaction of ones mental status and the immediate social influence. They typically explain human behaviour as a result of the interaction of mental status and immediate social influence. In Kurt Lewin’s conceptual formula behaviour can be viewed as a function of the person in the environment. Social psychology is an interdisciplinary domain that bridge the gap between psychology and sociology.
Social psychology is a scientific discipline or study. It is scientific in nature because it adopts some core values, which are essential for considering the field as scientific. Those core values are accuracy, objectivity, skepticism and open-mind ness. Understand the nature and causes of particular behavior and their experiences in different social situations. Studies the impact of social and cognitive processes in ways a person can influence and relate to others in social situations and effects their experiences. Social psychology not only addresses the nature of social behavior but also the causes of such behavior. The entire procedure includes four types of themes:
- Impact of individual upon other individuals
- Impact of individual members upon the group to which they belong.
- Impact that a group has on its members.
- Impacts that one group has another.
History
The second world war had a profound impact on the development on the development on social psychology. The developments in the starting of the decade 1940 were more prominent for the growth of social psychology. During 1940’s there occurred a profound impact of Kurt Lewin, whose creativity and dedication had very clearly marked him as the founder of applied social psychology. He had a strong faith that the integration of theory, research and practice was the essential and very useful ingredient of social psychology. Alarming situation heated by second world war also drew social psychologists into the search for solutions to immediate practical problems. Kurt Lewin often called as the father of modern social psychology and is one of the first researchers to study group dynamics and organizational development. Social psychologists were also requested to help the military personnel in keeping their morale up as well as in improving the performance of aircraft and task crews. They were also engaged in the task of teaching troops to resist enemy propaganda and even to teach them lesson regularly.
Since 1980, a renewed interest in the study of social self had arisen among social psychologists, who started giving more emphasis on the cognitive aspects of social behaviour.
Apart from paying attention to cognitive processes, social psychologists have also shown concern for the social processes, which directly or indirectly create an impact upon everything the people do. Social psychologist's consider that human behaviour is influenced by perception, attitude, beliefs and their interpretation, and simultaneously, also hold that these factors, in turn, are fundamentally shaped by person’s relationship to other, his thought about the reaction and group membership that help him to define who he is (Markus, Kitayama nd Heiman, 1996).
Scope
Studies human behavior in groups and how human behavior is influenced by others. Understands the socio-psychological causes and motives. Understand the relationship between minds, groups, and behavior in three general ways:
- Individual → others/groups : It tries to see how the thoughts, feelings and behaviors of individuals are influenced by the actual, imagined, or implied by presence of others. This includes social perception, social interaction, and the many kinds of social influence (like trust, power, and persuasion). ‘How do social groups control or contribute to behaviour, emotion or attitudes of the individual members?’ ‘How does the group impact the individual?’ ‘How does the individual operate within the social group?’
- Individuals → Groups : it tries to understand the influence that individual perceptions and behaviors have upon the behavior of groups. This includes looking at things like group productivity in the workplace and group decision making. ‘What are the reasons behind consistency, diversity and deviance?’
- Groups → Groups : tries to understand groups themselves as behavioral entities, and the relationships and influences that one group has upon another group. ‘What makes some groups hostile to one another and others neutral or civil?’ ‘Do groups behave in a different way than an individual outside the group?
Social Psychology as a Science
Any scientific field rests upon several assumptions, of which three are important:
- Scientists assume that there exists a real and external world independent of ourselves. (Investigations)
- Discoverable causes for all events in the scientists domains of interest. (Cause and effect)
- The results obtained by one scientist can easily be verified by the others. (Objectivity)
Goals of Social Psychology
The goal is to understand cognition and behaviour and how the act of observing people can influence and alter their behaviour.
- Understanding cognition and behavior : One of the primary goals of social psychology is to understand how individuals think, perceive, and interpret social situations. Researchers in social psychology aim to uncover the cognitive
These fundamental axioms provide a framework for understanding the underlying principles and assumptions that guide research and theory in social psychology. They highlight the active role individuals play in shaping their own perceptions and the powerful influence of social factors on cognition and behavior. By studying these processes, social psychologists aim to gain insights into human behavior and contribute to the development of theories and interventions that promote positive social outcomes
Relationship of Social Psychology With other
Fields
- Social psychology and sociology : they are interdependent. Share a common focus on human behavior in social contexts. Sociology focuses on large scale social structures whereas social psychology focuses on individual level processing to help shape social behavior.
- Social psychology and anthropology : explore ways in which culture shapes human behavior. Anthropology takes a more holistic approach, examining the cultural beliefs and practices of entire societies. Social psychology focuses on the psychological processes that underlie individual behavior.
- Social psychology and political psychology : studies how people interact in groups and how those interactions shape political outcomes. Political psych focus on formal institutions and processes (elections, govt.) Social psychology looks at the psychological processes that influence political behavior such as attitude, values and emotions.
- Social psychology and economics : they study human decision- making. Economics looks at the rational decision making in markets. Social Psychology focuses on psychological factors that influence these decisions.
- Social psychology and biology and neuroscience : both study human behavior but from different perspectives. Social psych; psychological processes that shape our behavior. Biology and neuroscience; biological and neural mechanism that underlie behavior.
- Social psychology and media : study of media effects on social behavior and attitudes. Social psychology; understanding how exposure to different forms of media can influence individuals attitudes, beliefs and behavior.
Research Methods and Their Applications
Social psychology is an empirical science, which means its theories and conclusions about social behavior are tested using systematic data collection and
observation.
Objectives of social psychological research
- Describing the issue accurately and precisely.
- Identifying correlations between variables.
- Testing existing theories and developing new ones.
- Discovering causes of some behavior.
- Finding solutions to these problems.
Basic concepts
- Variables: Variables are characteristics or properties that can vary or change in a research study. They can be classified as independent variables (the variable manipulated or controlled by the researcher) and dependent variables (the variable that is measured or observed and expected to be influenced by the independent variable).
- Hypothesis: A hypothesis is a testable statement or prediction that is proposed to explain a relationship between variables. It serves as a tentative explanation or a starting point for research. Hypotheses are based on existing theory, previous research, or observations and guide the research process.
- Operational Definition: An operational definition defines a concept or variable in a way that is measurable and observable. It specifies the procedures or operations used to measure or manipulate the variable in a research study. Operational definitions ensure that variables can be reliably and consistently measured or manipulated across different researchers or studies.
- Reliability: Reliability refers to the consistency and stability of a measure or instrument. It assesses the extent to which a measure yields consistent and reproducible results over time, across different observers, or under different conditions. Reliable measures produce similar results with repeated measurements, indicating the absence of random error.
- Validity : Validity refers to the accuracy and meaningfulness of a measure or instrument in capturing the intended construct or variable. It assesses whether a measure truly measures what it claims to measure. There are different types of validity, including content validity, criterion validity,
Research in social psychology much conform to high moral and ethical standards set up by the different association of psychologists. Ethical principles developed by APA (2002), the Canadian psychological association (2000) and the British Psychological society (2000) are very important ones and urge the researchers to do the following:
- Participants should make informed consent
- Deception should be avoided as far as possible
- Participants should be debriefed at the end of the study
- Confidentiality regarding participants should be ensured.
Experimental Method
It involves manipulating one variable to determine if this causes changes in another variable. This method relies on controlled research methods and random assignment of study subjects to test a hypothesis. The scientific method forms the basis of the experimental method. This is a process used to determine the relationship between two variables. When using the experimental method, researchers first identify and define key variables. Then they formulate a hypothesis, manipulate the variables, and collect data on the results. Unrelated or irrelevant variables are carefully controlled to minimize the potential impact on the experiment outcome. The five basic steps of the experimental process are:
- Identifying a problem to study
- Devising the research protocol
- Conducting the experiment
- Analysing the data collected
- Sharing the findings Types of experiments: Lab Experiment They are conducted in artificial surroundings. Participants are not in their usual environment for the behaviour they are performing. There are strict controls over the situation. It never intends to replicate real-life situations. Major aim of this experiment is to understand the cause-and-effect relationship.
Investigator must manipulate one or more of the IV that has been hypothesised to have a causal influence on the DV. Participants should be randomly assigned to various levels of IV. This is random assignment. Strengths:
- Cause and effect relationship to be established firmly.
- High internal validity due to control over variables other than IV having an impact on the DV.
- High experimental realism that means how likely participants feel involved in the situation. This leads to increased credibility.
- More objective and dependable; due to being measured by statistical tools.
- Standardised procedure raises reliability and allows replication.
- Lab experiments are easier means to test the casual hypotheses drawn from the various theories of social psychology like social exchange theory and cognitive theory. Weakness:
- lack external validity, which refers to generalizability of the obtained result from one specific experiment to the other experiments, people, etc., or the real-life situation.
- can not be used in some situations because of some practical or ethical considerations. In some situation it is impossible to manipulate the IV and doing so would violate ethical principles of the society.
- Although lab experiments possess a higher degree of internal validity, there occurs many threats to such internal validity too, like demand characteristics, experimenter effect and participant effect.
- Lab experiments can study only limited number of IV at a time. Since human behavior in real life is influenced by a large number of variables, it is possible that relationship demonstrated in lab experiment may not be the same as found in the real world.
Field experiment
These are carried out in a natural setting (real-life setting), in which the researcher manipulates something (I.V.) to see the effect of this on
occurrence. You can't change or tamper anything. No factor is controlled. What is happening is being observed, its basically an observation. Strengths: Very High ecological validity less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the results, as participants may not know they are being studied, Demand characteristics is the lowest Limitations: no control over extraneous variables that might bias the results Not replicable. more expensive and time consuming than lab experiments. The generalisability or the external validity is low.
Correlation Method
The correlational method is a research approach used to examine the relationship between two or more variables. It involves measuring the variables of interest and assessing the degree of association or correlation between them. A method of research in which the researcher systematically observe two or more variables to determine whether or not the changes in one variable is accompanied by the changes in the other variable. Social psychologists frequently use correlational method for studying the social behaviour. Correlational methods enable the researcher to make prediction. Aim: To know about whether two or more variables are related To know about the type of relationship existing between the variables under study Strengths:
Correlational methods can easily be used by social psychologists in natural settings, where the researcher can examine factors like race, gender and social status that cannot be manipulated in the laboratory.
- Allows the study of naturally occurring variables: The correlational method is useful when studying variables that cannot be manipulated or controlled by the researcher. It enables the examination of relationships between variables as they naturally exist in real-world settings.
- Provides a basis for prediction: Correlational research allows for the prediction of one variable based on knowledge of the other variable(s). By understanding the strength and direction of the relationship, researchers can make informed predictions about the behavior or outcome of one variable based on the value of another variable.
- Offers a starting point for further research: Correlational studies can generate hypotheses and provide preliminary evidence for the existence of relationships between variables. They can serve as a foundation for more controlled experimental research by identifying variables of interest and potential causal relationships.
- High external validity: Correlational research often involves studying variables in naturalistic settings, enhancing the external validity of the findings. The results can be generalized to real-world situations, making them relevant and applicable to a broader population.
Weaknesses:
The major drawback of correlational method is that it does not guarantee causation, that is no cause and effect prediction can be done on the basis of correlational method. The fact that the two variables are correlated, even highly correlated, does not guarantee that there is causal relationship between them that is, changes in one causes changes in the other. Reality may be that the obtained correlation between the two variables may be due to chance or random factors or due to the fact that changes in both variables are related to the third variable. Correlations indicate that two variables are related. But they do not indicate the direction of these effects.
- Cannot establish causation: The correlational method cannot determine cause-and-effect relationships between variables. Although a correlation indicates an association between variables, it does not provide evidence of
Field studies differ in how the observers collect and record the information. In some field studies, the observer watches very carefully the behaviour of the participants or events of the situation and then makes a note of imp things from his memory. In some other field studies, the observers may record the activities of the participant at the same time when they observe their behaviour. In other forms of field studies, researcher make audio or video recordings of interaction and subsequently, analyse the tape. Participant observation is one of the very popular form of field studies in social psychological research, it is a method of research in which the observer describes a social situation in which hi is actively involved.
Strengths:
Field studies or naturalistic observation allows the researchers to study the social behaviour in natural or real-world settings. This provides so much relevant information about the behaviour, which would be otherwise difficult to obtain. Field studies are relatively unintrusive. Therefore, they can be used to investigate sensitive or private behaviour such as sexual activities or drug use. Such behaviour are difficult to be observed through intrusive methods like surveys or experiments.
Weaknesses :
Field studies are very much sensitive to the recordings methods being frequently used. Observations recorded after the events of fact are usually less reliable and valid than those recorded on the spot. The validity of field studies may be destroyed if the observers operate covertly during observation and the participants suddenly discover that they are being observed by someone.
Two types of observations: Participant and Non- participant.
Participant observation is a qualitative research methodology in which the researcher studies a group not only through observation, but also by participating in its activities. is a method that helps you see and understand what people are doing and compare it with what they say. In this way, researchers know if the people part of the study act differently from what they are described and allows the researcher to better understand what is happening in a given group and its cultural environment.
Non-participant observation is used to understand a phenomenon by entering the community or social system involved, while staying separate from the activities being observed. Limitations could be observer effect, objectivity of the observer, selectivity etc.
Survey Methods
Survey method is defined as a systematic observation, where the researchers sample a large number of respondents, who answer the same questions, measure many variables and test multiple hypotheses. In survey method, the researcher collects information by asking members of the same population a set of questions, recording their responses and analysing them with appropriate statistical techniques. This method is considered very useful for identifying the average or typical response to a question as well as the distribution of responses within a defined population. Purpose of survey method: Survey method is used by social scientists, including social psychologists and sociologists, for various purpose. Some important purposes are as follows:
- Researchers often use survey methods to obtain self-reports from persons to know about their important attributes such as their attitudes, behaviour and experiences. This type of information enables the researcher to find out the distribution of attributes in the population and also helps in determining whether a relationship exists between the variable under consideration.
- Survey method is also used for knowing the political views to elections. For example public opinion poll.
- Survey methods are used for obtaining data about various types of social problems like national health care, family planning etc.
- Survey method, depending on the mode of data collection can be described basic two types: Interview method Questionnaire survey
Interview method
- Is a survey in which the interviewer asks questions from the respondent who answer them.
Sociometry is a way of measuring the degrees of relatedness among people. The practice of this method has the focus on the outcomes, established by the participants. “By making choice-based criteria.” Within sociology, sociometry has two main branches: Research sociometry: Research sociometry is an action research with groups exploring the socio-emotional networks of relationships using specific criteria, e.g., “who is in the group do you want to sit beside you at work?” Applied sociometry: Applied sociometry is concerned with relation patterns in small(individual groups) and large population, such as organization and neighborhood. Applied sociometry utilize a range of methods to assist people and group review, expand and develop their existing psycho-social network of relationship.
Meaning
Sociometry is a measurement technique that used in sociology, psychology and social anthropology and also psychiatry based on the assessment of social choice and interpersonal attractiveness. This method was developed by J. L. Moreno. It is a quantitative technique for measuring social relationships in group. It is the study of interpersonal relationship between people in a group. Sociometry has come to have several meanings; it is most commonly applied to the quantitative treatment of preferential interpersonal relations. The emphasis may be psychological or sociological A sociometric measure assess the attraction (or repulsion) within a given group. The basic technique involves asking all group members to identify specific person within the group they would prefer (or would not prefer) to have as partners in a given activity. Many work has focused on the concept of sociometric status. This includes studies of leadership, social adjustment, rating from the social isolate to the sociometric star (highly chosen). The measurement of social interaction is termed sociometry. It is based on the facts that people make choices in interpersonal relationships.
Uses of Sociometry
- It can be used to study the type of interaction and factors affecting the interaction.
- It also used to measure group characteristics such as cohesiveness, morale, bonding etc.
- It can also be used to measure individual characteristics such as leadership, aggressiveness, liberalism and conservatism.
- Any personality factor that is related to interpersonal attraction can be measured by sociometry.
- It provides a bird’s eye view of group structure and at the same time indicates the degree of social attraction possessed by members of the group.
