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Journalism and Mass Communication
Unit I: Origin of Print Media
I. Definition of Journalism and Mass Communication Journalism is the activity of gathering, creating and presenting news and information. The word Journalism was originally applied to the reportage of current events in printed form, specifically newspaper, but with the advent of Radio, TV and the internet in the 20 th century the use of term broadened to include all printed and electronic communication dealing with current affairs. The earliest knowing Journalistic product was a news sheet circulated in ancient Rome ‘’The Acta Diruna’’before 59 BC, recorded official business and matters of public interest. It constituted a type of daily gazette. It also recorded daily events such as public speeches. It was Published daily and hung in prominent places. In China during the Tang Dynasty, a Court circular called “Bao” or “Report” was issued to Govt officials. It appeared in various forms under different names until
- The first regularly published newspaper appeared in German cities in 1609. The first English Newspaper “The Weekly News” was published in 1622. One of the first daily newspapers “The Daily Courant” appeared in 1702. At first hindered by Govt. imposed censorship, taxes and other restrictions. Newspapers in the 18th century came to enjoy the reportorial freedom and indispensable function that they have retained to the present day. The growing demand for newspapers owing to the spread of literacy and the introduction of steam and then electronic driven presses caused the daily circulation rise from the thousands to the hundreds of thousands and eventually to the millions. Magazines which had started in the 17 th century as learned Journals began to feature opinion forming articles on current affairs. The cost of large scale news gathering led to the formation of news agencies, Organizations that sold their international reporting to many different newspapers and magazines.
The invention of the Telegraph by Samuel Morse in 1843 and then Radio and TV brought about a great increase in the speed and timeliness of journalistic activity and at the same time provided massive new outlets and audiences for their electronically distributed products. In the late 20 th century, satellites and later the internet were used for the long distance transmission of journalistic information. Journalism in the 20 th century was marked by growing sense of professionalism. An Organization of Journalists began as early as 1883, with the foundation of England’s chartered institute of Journalists. The first University course in Journalism was established at the University of Missouri (Columbia) in 1879-1884. In 1912 Columbia University in New York City established the graduate program in Journalism. By 1950’s courses in Journalism or communication was commonly offered in colleges. The purpose of Journalism is to provide citizens with the information they need to make the best possible decisions about their lives, their communities, societies and their Governments. Journalism is the collection, preparation and distribution of news and related commentary and feature materials through such print and electronic media as newspaper, magazines, books, blogs, podcast, social networking and social media sites as well as through radio, motion, pictures and TV. II. Types and methods of communication: Communication is a process of exchanging information, ideas, feelings and emotions through speech, signals, writings and behavior. In communication a sender (encoder) encodes a message and then using a medium/channel sends it to the receiver (decoder) who decodes the message and after processing information, sends back appropriate feedback/reply. Shramm defines communication as “A tool that makes societies possible and distinguish human from other societies.”
writing. Objective of every communication is to have people understand what we are trying to convey. When we talk to others, we assume that others understand what we are saying. Usually people bring their own attitude, perception, emotions and thoughts about the topic and hence create barrier in delivering the right meaning. So in order to deliver the right meaning, you must put yourself on the other side of the table/conversation and think from your receiver’s point of view. Verbal Communication is further divided into: 1: Oral Communication 2: Written Communication
1. Oral Communication : Spoken words are used in oral communication. It includes face to face conversation, telephonic conversation, videos, radio, TV, voiceover, internet. Communication is influenced by pitch, volume, speed and clarity of speaking. Advantages: It brings quick feedback. One can easily determine whether to trust or not what is being said. Disadvantages: User is unable to think deeply 2. Written Communication: Written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may be printed or hand written. In written communication message can be transmitted via email, letter, report, memo etc. Message in written communication is influenced by the vocabulary, grammar used, writing style and clarity of language used. It is the most common form of
communication being used in business. So it is considered core among business skills. Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals and electronic mail are the types of written communication used for internal communication. For external communication internet, websites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contract advertisements and news release are used. Advantages: Message can be edited and revised many times before it is actually sent. It provides record for every single message sent It enables receiver to fully understand it and send proper feedback. Disadvantages: No instant feedback More time consuming II. Nonverbal Communication Nonverbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless messages. We can say that communication other than oral and written such as gestures, body language, posture, tone of voice or facial expression. It is all about the body language of speaker. N.V communication helps receiver in interpreting the message received. Often N.V signals reflect the situation more accurately that verbal messages. Elements of N.V communication Speaker’s appearance: clothing, hairstyle, neatness, use of cosmetics. Surroundings: Room size, lighting, decorations, furnishings, body language, facial expression, gestures, sound, voice tone, volume, speech rate. BASED ON THE PURPOSE AND STYLE THERE ARE TWO MAIN CATEGORIES OF COMMUNICATION.
- Formal Communication: Certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while communicating message. Formal C occurs in formal and
2. Proximity: An event happening in geographical propinquity holds more importance for the audiences of that area than an event taking place in remote places. 3. Conflict: Conflict is the most basic element of any news; conflict is a part of modern lifestyle and augurs well for a good news story. 4. Prominence: Any event related to prominent personalities **5. Number and size
- Human interest
- Growth and development
- Impact TYPES OF NEWS
- Hard News:** Those news items fall under this category which hold importance of majority of readers, listeners, and viewers. News from the Govt departments, political news, and news related international affairs, educational news; industrial and commercial news, religious new etc come under the purview of hard news. These items cannot be withheld. They have to be communicated to the readers/listeners/viewers as soon as they are received. ‘ 2. Soft News: Soft news is concerned with human interest news. Generally crime, tragedy, comedy and other such elements of appealing to the emotions audience constitute soft news. Basically soft news is that news which does not demand immediate transmission to the audiences as opposed to the hard news. Basic News values Accuracy Balance and fairness
Objectivity Clarity Hard News report structure The Headline (Top of the story, it grabs reader’s attention) The Lead (Beginning of the article or hook of the article that tells what the story is all about) Body of Language (Elaboration of 5 W’s and 1H) End of article/conclusion (It could be a quote) IV. PRESS BEFORE AND AFTER INDEPENDENCE What is press? By press we mean “printing press”, but in journalistic and mass communication terminology we mean print media, newspapers, journals, magazines, periodicals, pamphlets, leaflets books or any other printed material like document etc. The Press is a sense as old as human race itself. Human beings instinctive curiosity to know about what is happening around has always been there. The writings on the walls and stones dating back to several centuries BC were the first signs of the origin of the press in India. Later paper and writing materials were invented, State records in the form messages. According to J. Natarajan “newsletters” were the earliest though rough form of a newspaper.
time, but also inspired the Indians to write newspapers of their own. It was published in Kolkata the capital of British India. Some of the prominent newspapers include. G.Subramaniya Aiyar founded The Hindu in 1878 and Swadesamitran in 1899. Surendranath Banerjee, popularly known as the father of Indian Nationalism was the editor of the newspaper "Bengalee" in 1905. To overcome illiteracy in India Bala Gangadhar Tilak founded Khesari in Marathi and Maratha in English. V. Some Important Personalities John Adam's Press Regulation 1823: In 1823 licensing regulation Ordinance was brought out by acting governor general John Adams. This regulation made operating Press without a license a punishable offence. The restriction was primarily aimed at Indian language newspapers or those edited by Indians. This prompted Raja Ram Mohan Roy to discontinue is Persian journal Mirat ul Akhbar which he founded in 1822. Adam's seven month administration was marked by great energy, but it is remembered only for his illiberal actions against the press and vindicated persecution of Mr. Bukingham who had come out to Calcutta in 1818 and founded the Calcutta journal. It was the most capable newspaper that had ever appeared in India and it give journalism a higher tone. Using the freedom granted to the press by Lord Hastings the editor commented on public measures with great boldness. Regulation was accordingly past in April 1823 which completely extinguished the freedom of unlicensed printings. Impact of the 1823 Regulations
Every publisher was required by the government to obtain a license. In the event of default, the penalty was rupees 400 and the government would shutdown the press. The Government also had the authority to revoke the license as a result of this restriction, Raja Ram Mohan Roy's newspaper Mirat ul Akhbar had to seize his publication. Sir Charles Metcalfe: Sir Charles Metcalfe passed the Press Act in 1835, thus restoring press freedom, Metcalfe was the acting Governor General of India from 1835-1836. He repealed the Licensing Regulation Act 1823. Metcalfe was a member of Council who persuaded Governor General Bentinck to include natives in the Country's Governance. The new Press Act 1835 required a printer, publisher to give a detailed account of the premises of a Publication and to cease operations if a similar declaration was issued. A liberal press policy resulted in a rapid expansion of newspapers. Features: Governor General Charles Metcalfe had a liberal attitude towards the Indian press and he repealed the 1823 regulations. The Act is known as the liberator of the Indian Press. This Act remained in force till 1856 and led to the rapid growth of newspapers in the Country. Impact: The Act was enthusiastically received by the European community in India and the principal inhabitants of Calcutta.
Brahminical Magazine: 1821 (Religious periodical paper) To revolt against Christian Missionary, Roy wrote different articles in Brahminical Magazine to make people aware of the British tactics. He did not want to dilute the essence of Hindu religion. So this paper played a vital role to protect the people from getting deprived of their religious freedoms/ practices etc. Apart from these three newspapers, He use to write for international newspapers. The Reformer The Enquirer He started a kind of school of Journalism “Progressive Hindu Journalism”. It worked until 1891. For his honorary work as a journalist, every year “Raja Ram Mohan Roy” National award is presented to a Journalist for his contributions in the field of Journalism. M.K Gandhi 1869 – 1948 Journalism was a factor that transformed ordinary Gandhi into Mahatma Gandhi. His work in Journalism has a strong influence not only on every newspaper in India, but also on the entire world. He went to South Africa in the year 1893 and returned to India in 1914.He edited three Journals during his lifetime. Gandhi used the Press as an important weapon to fight against the British.
**1. Indian Opinion (1903 – 1914) based in South Africa
- Young India (1919 – 1932)
- Herijan (1933 – 1948)** In order to ventilate the grievances of Indians and mobilize public opinion in South Africa, Gandhi started writing and giving interview to newspapers. He needed a mouthpiece to reach out to the public. So Gandhi started weekly newspaper “The
Indian Opinion” in June 1903, issued on Saturdays in Africa’s four natal languages. Three years later he dropped two of those languages for the want of competent editors. He himself edited the paper in other two languages and issued the paper in time until he left South Africa in 1914. It was published under his supervision expressing liberal ideas and giving correct information on both Indian and South African affairs. It served the purpose of newsletter which disseminated the news of the week among Indian Community. It became an important instrument of education. In 1914 M. Gandhi returned India after his successful political and social experiment in South Africa. Gandhi took charge of the Indian National Movement. He acquired Young India English weekly on Oct 18, 1919. Later Navajeevan a Guajarati weekly of Young India brought by Gandhi with the help of few friends in 1921. These have played very important role in India to propagate his views and quicken the attempts to acquire freedom. From 1920 onwards, the Indian Press played a prominent part at various stages of Non-Co-operation, Civil disobedience, Quit India campaigns. The Press incited the anti British agitation and played a definite role in infusing into the common people bitter aversion of the alien rulers. The advent of Gandhi on the political scene of India marked a great change in the attitude of the Indian Press. The Indian Nationalist Press took up the propagation of the revolutionary ideals of freedom in the Country as its mission. Gandhi’s opposition to the Montague Chelmsford reforms (Government of India Act, 1919) was published in all the Nationalist papers. The reforms were not satisfactory to Indians. Sensing this, the British Government appointed the Simon Commission to enquire into the reforms and suggest modifications. The Simon Commission was boycotted by the Indian people and demonstrations were held. The Press gave a wide coverage to this news. The struggle to win Indian freedom continued despite British checks and even atrocities. On April 5, 1930, Gandhi started historical Dandhi March to break the Salt Tax Laws by himself; he was arrested by the Britishers. The Press was vigorous and gave full publicity to the news of the Dandhi March. To curb the freedom of the Press, the Government promulgated Indian Press Ordinance of 1930 to provide the better control of the Press. The newspapers were asked to deposit securities, forfeiture of the deposits and seizing of the printing presses was the order of the day.
Sunnenberg (A female Journalist worked in Germany, China and Southeast Asia ) reported that a Study was conducted in 31 Countries on the ethical code and it was found that Journalists adhered 57 principles and 10 principles were found to be common in all the 31 Countries. Truthfulness Honest Accuracy of Information Prohibition of discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity / religion etc Respect for privacy Prohibition to accept bribes or any benefit Fair means of information collection Prohibition of discrimination on the basis of sex/class etc Prohibition to allow any outsider to have influence on the Journalistic work Ethics is a system of moral principles. They affect how people make decisions and lead their lives. Ethics is considered with what is good for individuals and society and is also described as moral philosophy. Ethics cover/include the following dilemmas How to live a good life Our rights and responsibilities The language of right and wrong Moral decisions – what is good and bad Approaches to ethics Philosophers nowadays tend to divide ethical theories into three areas 1: Meta Ethics: It deals with the nature of moral judgment. It looks at the origins and meaning of ethical principles.
2. Normative Ethics: It is considered with the content of moral judgment and the criteria for what is right or wrong. 3. Applied Ethics: Looks at controversial topics like war, animal rights and capital punishment. Need of ethics in Journalism: The term ethics is derived from Greek word “ethos” which means custom, character or disposition. In Journalism ethics are very important because they create guidelines for Journalists to follow that help people from feeling unequal and out casted. Ethics are important in making sure that media stays true and further and help them maintaining sense of equality. Journalists have the social responsibility to ensure that information is presented in a fair, balanced and truthful manner. Journalists should not sensationalize any media event for their own benefit. We now live in internet and highly mediated system. The sheer amount of information produced and distributed by the mass media on a daily basis can impact significantly on the manner in which people, communities and societies understand or (misunderstand) each other. Media is considered as a fourth estate, a watchdog or a pillar of Democracy, the Press undoubtedly an essential element of public sphere. However, it continuously faces several challenges and is assailed by multiple forces. Indeed competition on the digital front, pressures to publish fast and quick, the temptation of sensationalism, job insecurity and high staff turnover are some of the threats to the profession. It is expected from a Journalist that he does his job honestly and objectively along with the protection of the sources and loyalty with the employer. These factors create dilemma at times. Hence, it is important to understand all the aspects of ethical issues. It should be noted that ethics in the profession are only guidelines, which are necessary in the process of information dissemination. These ethics relate to language use and means adopted in securing information for ensuring objectivity and fairness in presenting facts to public. Collection and dissemination of information is the duty of press because the press as a mass communication channel operates in a public sphere for the benefit of the
Minimize Harm Plagiarism II. Press Council of India and Press Council’s Guide to Journalistic Ethics The Press Council of India was setup on the recommendations of the first Press Commission in the year 1954 with purpose of preserving the freedom of the press and of maintaining and developing the standards of press in India. The Commission felt that high standard of Journalism was being maintained by only few players/Journalists, while others were prone to publishing sensational news. The Commission had opined that only an autonomous body comprising people principally connected with the industry could ensure that no code of Journalistic ethics are breached by any player. The Commission identified roles for the proposed commission. Recommendations of First Press Commissions:
- Establishment of Press Council with the following goals: The Council must be established on a statutory basis in order for it to have the legal authority to conduct investigations. The appointment of men as members who have earned the profession’s trust and esteem. The Council shall have 25 members except the Chairman, the Chairman should be a former High Court Judge. The Chief Justice of India will nominate him. So accordingly Press Council of India was initially established in the year 1966 and started its operation from November 16, 1966 (Nov 16 is observed as the National Press Day). The existing Press Council of India functions under the Press Act, 1978. It is a statutory, quasi judicial agency which functions as a watchdog of the Press. It adjudicates complaints against and by the Press for violation of ethics and for the violation of the freedom of the Press. Justice J.R Mudhalkar was the first Chairman of PCI.
Press Council of India under Press Council Act, 1978 shall consist of: Chairman Two Rajya Sabha Members Three Lok Sabha Members Seven Working Journalists (other than editors of newspaper) Six Editors of Newspapers Three persons with specialized knowledge on public life One person who manages news agencies Six persons in the business of managing newspapers Functions of PCI: To help newspapers maintaining their independence To build up a code of conduct for newspaper agencies and journalists in accordance with high professional standards To ensure on the part of newspapers, news agencies and journalists the maintenance of high standards of public taste and foster a due sense of both the rights and responsibilities of the citizen To encourage the growth of sense of responsibility and public service aiming all those engaged in the profession of Journalism To keep under review any development likely to restrict the supply and dissemination of the news of public interest To keep under review cases of assistance received by any newspaper or news agency in India from any foreign source including such cases as are referred to it by the Central Government or by any other person, association of persons or any other Organization Press Council’s Guide to Journalistic Ethics Accuracy and fairness Pre publication verification Caution against defamatory writings
