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Introduction Tap dance has been long forgotten in the majority of dance programs in higher education. The lack of knowledge of this dance form deters students from learning about a style so rich in cultural history, in part because it derives from many different aspects of performing arts. At Ohio University, numerous courses are offered for students to learn about the history of dance, including History of Modern, 20th^ century dance, history of African dance and Black Dance Forms. These classes are offered as a part of the component of the dance curriculum. However, tap dance is only a small portion of the content of history courses. The history of art informs present day art and holds an important place in the rise of many styles of dance. Tap dance‟s history is essential to the future world of dance. In this thesis, I first present the history of tap, followed by the importance of tap in education, and my conclusion. My attempt is to capture the attention of professors and students and allow them to explore the importance of the realm of tap dance as an art form.
The Early Influence: The Misconceptions of Historical Context Tap dance evolved over time, merging from various components of dance that were found in West African tribal dances, Irish step dancing, and English clog dancing.^1 Although there is an ongoing debate on the development of Tap, some sources give credit to Irish dancing as the originator of its progression as an art form. Some writers further believe that Irish dance had an influence on African dance.
(^1) Knowles, Mark. Tap Roots: The Early History of Tap Dancing. ( McFarland and Company, INC, 2002), p. 1.
However, in reality, both African and Irish were primary influences on Tap, but not on one another. Both were done in their original form in their native land and were later interconnected to form new styles of dance. Therefore, the confusion lies in the hands of the writers that have re-written dance history to fit what society believes. Marshall Stearns, author of Jazz Dance: The story of American Vernacular Dance, looked deeper into this subject to help his research for his book. After many years, he concluded that Irish dancing did not have an influence on African dance, but later became associated with one another when brought to the United States.^2 The true development of tap happened over an extended period of time with the continuum of change in music and dance. In Africa, the traditional dances performed were a primary influence on the beginning of what is known as “vernacular dance”, which means movement that is developed as a part of everyday culture in a certain environment. African people used their life experiences to create ways of moving as a means of communication to other slaves as well as in ritual and occasion.
Around the mid 1500s during the slave trade, over 10,000 slaves per year were transported from Africa to the West Indies and forced to dance aboard ships. It was in the new land that the people obtained their first contact with the European and British styles of dancing. Overtime, the mixing of all these styles came about as multiculturalism spread across the world. Stearns writes, “several American dances
(^2) Nathan, Hans. Dan Emmett and the Rise of Early Negro Minstrelsy. (University of Oklahoma Press, 1962), p. 70.
American people and set the course for what later became the minstrel era. He became the character Jim Crow, a Black crippled slave who worked out in the fields of his owner.^5 Rice imitated him after close observation and became one of the most popular acts of this era. Minstrelsy was the most popular form of entertainment in the United States for more than half a century and even spread to many parts of the world. At this time, tap dance was not classified; dancers performed a mixture of different styles. The shows often applied movement of the Irish decent, including the Jig and the Hornpipe. Other major dances were The Buck and Wing, Soft shoe, and the Cakewalk. The mixing of both Irish and African dance helped dancers of that time create new, rhythmic steps to perform in front of the audience. The emphasis on the legs, with no upper body movement reflects the Irish influence while the reference to the shuffling and rhythm of the steps reflects Afro-American elements.
After the Civil War, Negro minstrel companies began to hit the scene of live entertainment. Although the war ended in 1865, there were only three Negro companies performing on the road almost 25 years later. This number is compared to the dozens of white troupes that were also travelling during this time. Of all the performers, one Negro dancer stood out. His name was William Henry Lane and some sources give him credit for being the founder of Tap Dance. Writer and theorist Edward Le Roy Rice confidently states that “the world never saw his equal.”^6 During the 1840‟s, the blending of these styles were acceptable in the performing of Negro companies. Lane was possibly a reason for the change in this style of dancing. White (^56) Conner, Edmon. The New York Times. 5 June 1881 Rice, Edward Leroy. Monarchs of Minstrelsy. (Kenny Publishing CO., 1911), p. 48.
professionals even began to describe the performance of Irish Folk Dance as the general style of Negro dancing. 7 Lane‟s influence on the impact of minstrelsy comes from years of struggling to become a performer. He became the first African American to perform for an all white audience. The huge influence of this one Negro dancer adopted the idea that minstrel shows have retained more integrity as a Negro art-form that any other theatrical derivative of Negro culture.^8
The Harlem Renaissance was an important change, not only for dance, but all forms of art. Originally called the “New Negro Movement”, this progression took place during the 1920s and 30s and opened the door for many Black artists through poetry, dance, literature, music, and visual arts. This movement that organically evolved had a deep impact on the words of so many poets, intellects and artist around the country and an even deeper impact on the lives of the viewers and readers. This period, which lasted 10-15 years, marked the rise of Black intellects in American society, paving the way for many African Americans and their successors. The Broadway show, Shuffle Along, which opened in May 1921, is often credited as the start of the Harlem Renaissance. This all-Black show was created, directed and performed by a team of Black comedians.^9 It was the first Black show on Broadway to last for nearly one year. It is noted that it was an “… outstanding Negro musical to play white theaters from coast to coast.”^10 During this era, over forty Black musicals
(^78) Stearns, Jean and Marshall Stearns. Jazz Dance: Story of American Vernacular Dance , p. 45. 9 Stearns, Jean and Marshall Stearns.Haskins, James. Black Dance in America; A History Through it’s People^ Jazz Dance: Story of American Vernacular Dance. (HarperCollins, 1990), p. 36., p. 47. (^10) Stearns, Jean and Marshall Stearns. Jazz Dance: Story of American Vernacular Dance , p. 139.
hurt the original clog by taking out dancing and adding acrobatics. 11 This had a huge influence on a tap step called „the wing.”
During this time, minstrelsy was the only way to make a song a national hit in one season in the United States, until around 1960, when minstrelsy was slowly being replaced by Vaudeville. Although not proven, scholars believe that Tony Pastor was the official founder of vaudeville entertainment.^12 The Vaudevillian era was a term used for the variety of entertaining acts that combined acting, singing, and dance, including what was later referred to as tap dance. Tap dance developed into a style of its own around the 1960s. Some performers used wooden-soled shoes, which allowed sound to come from their feet and others performed in soft-shoes, which again was accompanied by a song and dance. This introduction of taps on the bottom of dancers‟ shoes occurred at the same time as the uprising of Black Musical Theater. Black Musical Theater was an opportunity for African American people to perform without Black face. Some of the previous minstrel dances were reintroduced and stripped of the unrealistic qualities that the white people used to make fun of Blacks while performing.^13 Because of the lack of funds, the Negro groups performed in rural areas, in small venues such as low class carnivals and medicine shows. By touring to different venues, they brought attention to Black Musical Theater and further defined their craft.
(^1112) Barrett interview with A.J. Liebling, New York World Telegram (9 November 1932) 13 Knowles, Mark.Winter, Marian. “Juba and American Minstrelsy”.^ Tap Roots: The Early History of Tap Dancing, Chronicles of the American Dance,^ p_._^ 135. (Henry Holt, 1948), p. 60.
Over the course of my research, I noticed a shift in historical information. Because tap is a form of dance that evolved rapidly, during a period of great change, its history is somewhat unclear. For instance, according to Mark Knowles, the first minstrel shows took place in 1928, while Stearns marks the period at starting in 1945. Knowles referenced Stearns book in his bibliography, yet the dates are more than 15 years apart. In another book, author Jerry Duke, who also referenced Stearns, states that the minstrel era started in 1840.^14 Which author is correct? In a leisure conversation with friend and tap dancer Jumaane Taylor, he stated that Stearns‟ provides the closest documentation of the true history of Tap dance. In this book, he gives primary credit to the influential African dances that were brought from the U.S. to the West Indies. In Jerry Ames‟ book, The Book of Tap, he credits European styles as the first influential dances to inspire tap. These dances include English clog, Irish Jigs, and Morris dance. The debate arises when reading about clog dance. The word “buck,” which came from the West Indies and was named after African dancers labeled “Po‟ Bockorau”, suggest some European styles were developed by slaves after they arrived in the West Indies. Another larger influence on clog dancing was the Ring Shout, which was another dance brought to the new world from Africa. In that case, facts are proven that both styles of dance contributed to Tap dance, but the African influence was greater.
In summary, it is essential that students know the history of where dance evolved into many different styles. It is also important that students know about the
(^14) Duke, Jerry. Clog Dance in the Appalachians. (Duke Publishing, 1984), p. 17.
took a backseat to television. Tap dancer Cholly Atkins said, “Television helped to kill tap. See it was very difficult for good tap to catch on television-wise [since] it had more depth to it than TV could accommodate.”^17 He also added that its cost were prohibitive, in particular the cost associated with managing the logistics of tap floors for rehearsals and performances. Companies were often unwilling to pay these costs. Television, as a venue, pushed producers to come up with new forms of entertainment, whether it was variety shows, talk shows or comedy shows. But, many of these productions showcased ballet and jazz dances, excluding tap dance. Artists like Fred Astaire and Paul Draper hit the screen with tap dance, but added balletic movements. Tap dance on film became more about personality and music rather than true tap. This marked the beginning of the demise of tap dance. The popularity of television and film performers such as Fred Astaire, preceded by Bill “Bojangles” Robinson and Gene Kelly, drew people away from live performance. Their style was much different than the live hoofers that were performing. These “on-screen” dancers added elegance and grace to the upper body and brought out personality that made their audiences intrigued with their movement.
Due to the popularity of television, many dancers were left unnoticed during the twenties, thirties, and forties. Around this time, one of the most important arenas for the exchange of style and rhythm was the Hoofer‟s Club in Harlem. This gambling establishment was one of the well known venues for tap dance, especially for Black
(^17) Hill, Constance Valis. Tap Dancing America: a cultural history. (Oxford University Press, 2010), p.
tap dancers looking to build their craft.^18 It was owned by Lonnie Hicks, who was a piano player from Atlanta. Hicks allowed any dancers to practice and experiment with movement on an open stage.^19 All of the up and coming “tap cats,” as they were called, attempted to keep tap dance alive. “The minute we had free time, we‟d stuff our tap shoes in our pockets, hang the shoelaces around our necks, and sprint over to the Hoofer‟s club,” said tapper Maceo Anderson, who later became a member of The Four Step Brothers, one of the longest lasting performing groups during the 1920s.^20 The Hoofer‟s Club harbored some of the world‟s greatest tap dancers, whom I call the underdogs because these performers were unnoticed, but still struggled to keep tap alive, despite its lack of popularity.
King Rastus Brown made his presence known at the Hoofer‟s club and popularized the time step. He did not gain as much fame as Bill Robinson, in part because he refused to perform for all White audiences and he preferred to perform live. He was a major influence on what is called a buck tap dancer. “He danced flat- footed, close to the floor, moving from the hips down, and swinging.”^21 Students don‟t really learn about Brown in history classes because he never hit the big screen or performed in clubs with large venues in Harlem. Also, unlike other live performers, he had no comedic undertone in his performances. Bill Robinson, on the other hand, had it all. His personality and charm helped to win over the audience. Many of his steps came from Brown, but he changed them and brought tap up on the toes. The difference (^1819) Ames, Jerry and Jim Siegalman. The Book of Tap , p. 50. (^20) Stearns, Jean and Marshall Stearns.Castle, Nick. Tap. (Beco Films, 1989) Jazz Dance: Story of American Vernacular Dance , p. 174. (^21) Wayburn, Ned. The Art of Stage Dancing. (The Ned Wayburn Studios INC.,1925), p. 177.
through music and/or dance. When Laurence once visited a Jazz history course at the New School in New York, he encouraged students to look deeper into the art of tap dance alongside jazz. The progression of tap over the years is similar to the progression of jazz and other styles of dance that came along as a result of the change. Laurence mentioned that he classifies dancing to jazz music in three ways, “tap, interpretive, and choreographic.” He further explained that “tap” represents hoofing, “interpretive” expresses the body motion, and “choreographic” attaches importance to dances influenced by modern and ballet.^23 Baby Laurence was around at the turning point of tap, after men like Bubbles and Robinson was performing. However, he still watched and learned at the Hoofer‟s club and became more of a traditional hoofer rather than a buck tapper, possibly due to changes in music during this time. Performers such as, Honi Coles and Cholly Atkins, became popular around the same time. These two army vets, who started a duet that performed all over the world, gained much respect for their routines. They mostly focused on soft shoe and “swing dance,” which occurred at the same time as the development of jazz. They then added comedy to their act, which made their shows more marketable. Atkins and Coles performed for awhile in the 1950s until booking gigs became more difficult and scarce. In an effort to stick with their craft by doing solo works, the team broke up and went their separate ways. Coles opened a studio and Atkins went to teach at Katherine Dunham‟s School of Dance.
The Rebuild
(^23) Stearns, Jean and Marshall Stearns. Jazz Dance: Story of American Vernacular Dance , p. 341.
Why did tap dance make a comeback in the 1960s? Although television never died, the popularity of live performance was brought back to life through the newer tap artist of the sixties. Jazz music had taken over a larger part of the entertainment world and could be credited for helping to bring tap back to the stage. Jazz scholar and referenced author Stearns put together a show entitled “The Newport Jazz Festival” with the goal of bringing back a lost art form, Tap dance. The combination of both jazz and tap awed the audience and started the rise of live entertainment again. The year 1969 was a great year for tap dance. A former dancer, Leticia Jay, presented a powerhouse tap performance called Tap Happening to bring audiences‟ attention back to tap dance. The cast included some of the greatest tap dancers, including Chuck Green, Sandman Sims, and Dr. Jimmy Slyde. It became the dance event of the season, with packed houses and great reviews.^22 This marked the beginning of the return of tap dance on Broadway.
Today, the legacy of tap dance is kept alive through tap artists who refuse to let it die. Dianne “Lady DI” Walker is one of many artists who helped bring back the popularity of tap dance. Furthermore, she is still striving to keep it alive and kicking into present times. She believes that the best thing to do is “put the best of what we have up on stage; if not, we‟re wasting our time, and we don‟t have that kind of time.”^24 Tap is a visual art form and live performance is what makes it come alive. Present day tap artists learn about the history and legacy of tap through festivals, history classes, and panel discussions with tap masters. Melba Huber writes, “The (^2224) Ames, Jerry and Jim Siegalman. The Book of Tap, p. 105. Wisner, Heather. “Bringing Back the Beat.” Dance Studio Life, p. 61
are not lost. After researching the history of Tap, I learned about the many artistic influences Tap had and currently has on the world of dance.
Tap dance plays an essential role in Black history as well as dance history. During the later years of slavery and the earlier years of the development of tap, this style helped to break down cultural and racial barriers. Dances brought over from other countries helped to build the dance vocabulary of the United States, which brought traditional and innovative styles together to establish new dance forms, like Tap. According to theorists, an African American man named Master Juba created tap.^26 Around this time, Blacks were not allowed to perform for White audiences. However, because of Tap, Juba became the first black man to perform in front of an all White audience. It is also evident that both the Hoofer‟s Club and the Apollo Theater helped to bring diverse people together in one setting. As a result of the Harlem Renaissance, the migration of Blacks in Harlem increased tremendously, which could be a reason for the hiring of Blacks in this community. The Apollo Theater was the first to hire black entertainment in the city of New York.^27 The Hoofer‟s club was open to all tap dancers, regardless of their race and social status. Because of places like these, Blacks found a way to make income in such a huge city. Many theaters began to allow Black people to perform, in part because they paid them lower wages.
(^26) Peretti, Burton W. Lift Every Voice: The History of African American Music. (Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, INC., 2009) p. 22. (^27) Semmes, Clovis. The Regal Theater and Black Culture. (Palgrave McMillan, 2006), p. 57.
There are professional dancers who make a living solely from performing tap. Just like any form of dance, there are tap companies and tap performances. The artists today have made it their goal to keep tap dance alive. One of the most effective ways to do this is by having tap festivals all over the world, featuring some of tap‟s top artists. Today, there are festivals in locations such as Sweden, Germany, Canada, and Japan, just to name a few. These festivals are the backbone of tap education. Workshops typically include an array of classes, panel discussions and video history class for students to learn from the tap legends that helped build the tap industry. These festivals typically honor one or more “Doctors of Tap,” a term used to describe artists who were honored and celebrated at Oklahoma University.^28 Every year, the tap world loses another “Doctor”. Only three of the nine legends who have spent their lives educating and influencing young dancers to pursue tap dance as a primary art form are still living, Dr. Bunny Briggs, Dr. Jeni Legon, and Dr. Prince Spencer. Previous “Doctors” such as, Dr. Cholly Atkins, Dr. James “Buster” Brown, Dr. Henry Letang, Dr. Fayard Nicholas, Dr. Leonard Reed, and Dr. James T. “Jimmy Slyde” Godbolt all died within the past ten years. In order to “preserve the knowledge and history of tap, the masters have been honored at tap festivals where they teach classes, perform, and inspire a new generation.”^29 Some theorists believe that these festivals are a large part of tap‟s expansion.^30 This is one of the only ways for the younger tap artist to catch up with tap dance‟s past.
(^2829) Bedford, John and Jo Rowan. The Doctors of Dance. (Oklahoma State University). 30 Huber, Melba.Huber, Melba.^ “Tap Masters pass it on.” “Tap Masters pass it on.”^ Dancer MagazineDancer Magazine, p. 68, p. 71
Conclusion As a component of this paper, I hosted three workshops and a performance with the sole purpose of educating the students at Ohio University on a form of dance not represented in the School of Dance (see Appendix I). During the performance, I talked to the students about the history of tap and its origins. After receiving a grant, I was able to bring two Chicago tap artist to Athens that taught, performed and educated the students about tap. To further my research, I asked the audience members to fill out questionnaires after the performance portion of the events. The questionnaire and results are below:
QUESTIONNAIRE
Audience Questionnaire Circle the correct answer to each question
- Are you a dance major or dance professor?Have you ever been introduced the history and legacy of Tap dance? YESYES NNO
- On a scale from 1 know about tap prior to the concert?-10 (ten being the highest), how much did you _______
- Do you enjoy watching Tap Dance? YES NO
- Now that you have seen the show, are you more interested in how tap was developed? YES NO
- Do you believe it would be a goo Classes and/or tap history classes in the dance program at OU?d idea to implement Tap Dance YES NO
- If there were such a class, would you register for it? YES NO Any additional comments can go on the back
RESULTS
These are the results of the people who were dance professors and/or dance students.
The audience‟s responses suggest that many students who are dance majors at Ohio University are unaware of the history and art of tap dance. However, every student who completed the survey was interested in learning more about Tap and even in taking a Tap class. According to the survey, on a scale from one to 10, with ten being the highest, more than half the population of the dancers in the audience indicated they had little to no knowledge of Tap. Even the non-dance majors believed that tap dance should be implemented into the curriculum of the School of Dance. In the school, dance majors learn about every form of dance that contributed to the development of Tap dance, including African, Modern, and Jazz. A large part of Tap
