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MODULE 3: Interpersonal
Attraction
Concept, nature and meaning of interpersonal attraction
By attraction, we mean a positive attitude held by one person towards the other person. In interpersonal attraction, a person holds certain attitude towards another person. This attraction is expressed along a scale or dimension, which ranges from strong liking to strong disliking, thus, interpersonal attraction may be defined as a person’s evaluation of or the person’s attitude about some other person on a dimension ranging from strong liking to strong disliking (Baron and Branscombe,2006). In simple words interpersonal attraction refers to the extent to which we like or dislike other persons. It means repulsion is also a factor in the process of interpersonal attraction and a person’s conception of attraction to another may vary from extreme attraction to extreme repulsion. Depending on the level of feeling of attraction, we categorize the other persons and behave towards them in quite different ways. If the level of liking is strong such as close friend, we try to spend time together and make joint plans for action. Likewise, if the level of liking is mild such as close acquaintance, we enjoy interaction with them when we happen to meet. If there Is strong disliking such as an undesirable person or enemy, we actively avoid contact. So it is clear that interpersonal likes and dislikes are determined by person’s affective or emotional state. When we experience positive emotions, we make positive evaluations and when we experience negative evaluations, we experience negative evaluations. This emotional evaluation is influenced by some factors like physical proximity, repeated exposure to another person, as well as to the observable characteristics that is , how a person looks or sounds. When the interpersonal attraction is accompanied by mutual liking by what they say or what they do, such attraction towards a close relationship. Interpersonal attraction refers to the evaluations we make of other people—the positive and negative attitudes we form about them.
Determinants/Factors affecting Interpersonal Attraction
Internal determinants Need to affiliate:
Human beings are born with the need for affiliation, which is defined as a basic motivation form seeking and maintaining interpersonal relationship. This need is fulfilled through others. In fact, interpersonal attraction is the basis for most voluntary social relationships. Although the need to affiliate with others appears to be very basic among human beings, people differ greatly in the strength of this tendency—known as need for affiliation. These differences, whether based on genetics or experience, constitute a relatively stable trait (or disposition). Basically, we tend to seek the amount of social contact that is optimal for us, preferring to be alone some of the time and in social situations some of the time (O’Connor & Rosenblood, 1996). People do affiliate out of attraction for one another. We want to affiliate to persons who are kind and understanding, who have attractive personalities and who like us in return. People tend to differ in the strength of their need for affiliation. Some people tend to seek optimal amount of social contact, and some prefer to be alone some of the time. When affiliation need is not met or when we are ignored, we feel both sad and angry. Need for affiliation provides the opportunity for social comparison. Affect : Affect means the emotional state that has an impact upon perceiving, thinking, motivation, decision-making as well as liking or disliking toward others. Two most important characteristics of affect are intensity and direction. Intensity indicate the strength of the emotion and direction indicates whether the emotion is positive or negative. Positive intense affect leads to positive evaluations of other people (strong liking), while negative intense affect leads to negative evaluations. Positive and negative affective states influence attraction both directly and indirectly. Direction , on the other hand, indicates whether the emotion is positive or negative. Positive affect encompasses emotions such as happiness, joy, excitement, and contentment, while negative affect includes emotions like anger, sadness, fear, and disgust. The direction of affect influences our overall evaluation of people, events, and situations.
External determinants
Proximity: Proximity means physical closeness between two individuals with respect to where they live and interact, where they suit in a classroom and where they work and so on.
shape our impressions of others. This can include factors such as body language, facial expressions, tone of voice, and other non-verbal cues. For instance, someone who displays confident and open body language may be perceived as more approachable and likable. Conversely, individuals who exhibit behaviors that are off-putting or socially inappropriate might evoke negative judgments. IV) Miscellaneous factors : Observable differences in behavior can also shape our impressions of others. This can include factors such as body language, facial expressions, tone of voice, and other non-verbal cues. For instance, someone who displays confident and open body language may be perceived as more approachable and likable. Conversely, individuals who exhibit behaviors that are off-putting or socially inappropriate might evoke negative judgments.
Interactive determinants
Similarity : Similarity is a concept within social psychology that refers to the degree to which individuals perceive themselves or others as similar or alike in various aspects. It plays a crucial role in shaping social interactions, interpersonal relationships, and group dynamics. Similarity can be observed across multiple dimensions, including attitudes, beliefs, values, interests, personalities, demographics, and behaviors. Similarity has significant implications for social attraction and the formation of relationships. People are generally attracted to those who are similar to themselves. The authors state, "People tend to choose partners who are similar to them in attitudes, beliefs, and values" (Baron & Branscombe, 2014, p. 314). This phenomenon is known as the similarity-attraction principle. It suggests that individuals are more likely to establish and maintain relationships with others who share similar characteristics and viewpoints. similarity also plays a role in the formation and cohesion of groups. In the context of group dynamics, individuals are more likely to feel connected and experience a sense of belonging when they perceive similarity with other group members. This perception of similarity promotes cooperation, trust, and positive intergroup relations. Baron and Branscombe state, "Perceptions of similarity among group members promote positive feelings and attitudes toward the group and its members”. Researcher have found that there are direct connection between similarity and attraction. researches suggest that interpersonal attraction and similarity multidimensional constructs where individuals are attracted to others who are similar to them in multiple aspects some of them are:
Attitude similarity: Attitude similarity refers to the extent to which individuals hold similar beliefs, opinions, or evaluations about a particular topic, issue, or object. Social psychology research suggests that people are more likely to be attracted to and form relationships with those who share similar attitudes. According to the balance theory proposed by Fritz Heider, individuals strive for consistency in their thoughts and attitudes. When encountering others with similar attitudes, it creates a sense of agreement and validation, leading to positive feelings and increased liking for the other person. Similarity in values: Values are broad, enduring beliefs about what is important and desirable in life. When individuals share similar values, it enhances the likelihood of positive social interactions and relationship formation. Social psychology research has found that individuals are more attracted to those who share their values, as it provides a sense of compatibility and shared goals. The similarity-attraction hypothesis suggests that people are more likely to form relationships with those who have similar values, leading to greater interpersonal satisfaction and long- term compatibility. Similarity in personal characteristics: Similarity in personal characteristics refers to the resemblance between individuals in terms of traits, behaviors, and characteristics. Research in social psychology has consistently shown that individuals are attracted to others who are similar to them in various personal qualities, such as physical attractiveness, intelligence, personality traits, and background. This phenomenon is known as the matching hypothesis, which suggests that individuals seek partners who are similar to themselves in terms of desirable characteristics. This preference for similarity in personal characteristics is believed to contribute to the formation and maintenance of relationships>
Romantic Relationships
love is an emotional reaction that seems as basic as sadness, happiness, and fear (Shaver, Morgan, & Wu, 1996).
love: A combination of emotions, cognitions, and behaviors that often play a crucial role in intimate relationships.
passionate love: An intense and often unrealistic emotional response to another person. When this emotion is experienced, it is usually perceived as an indication of true love, but to outside observers it appears to be infatuation.
traits, qualities, and behaviors one desires or expects in a partner. These schemas guide individuals' perceptions of their partners and shape their relationship dynamics. For instance, someone with a partner schema that emphasizes trustworthiness and loyalty may be more likely to interpret their partner's actions in a positive light and maintain a stable and committed relationship. Schema between self and partner: The schema between self and partner refers to the shared beliefs, expectations, and attributions formed within a romantic relationship. It encompasses the understanding of how each partner perceives and interacts with the other. This schema influences the dynamics and quality of the relationship, including communication, conflict resolution, and intimacy. For example, partners who have developed a schema of mutual understanding and effective communication may have a more satisfying and harmonious relationship compared to those with a schema characterized by misunderstandings and ineffective communication.
Theories of interpersonal attraction:
Newcomb A-B-X Model Newcomb (1956, 1961) developed a theoretical model based on Heider's balance theory to explain interpersonal attraction. The model focuses on the dynamics of interpersonal attraction or rejection between two individuals (A and B) in relation to a third person or object (X) that can be liked or disliked. The model considers the positive and negative bonds that exist between the actor, the other person, and the attitudinal object. The attitudinal object (X) can be a tangible thing like a motorcycle or a tree, an issue like television violence or sex education, or even another person. The system can be symmetrical (balanced) or asymmetrical (imbalanced) based on the perceived bonds and orientations. In a balanced state, all perceived bonds or orientations are positive. For example, A and B like each other and both like X, resulting in a balanced relationship. Symmetry can also exist when there is one negative bond and one positive bond. For example, A may dislike B and X, but B and X may like each other, without A's concern.
Imbalance occurs when there are various combinations where A and B may not like each other or may have differing preferences for X.
In an imbalanced relationship, the product of positive (+) and negative (-) signs is negative, representing an asymmetrical relationship.
According to Newcomb's model, there is a strain towards symmetry in imbalanced states, leading the actor (A) to take actions to restore symmetry and reduce perceived imbalance.
The question arises as to why an actor (A) prefers a symmetrical relationship over an asymmetrical one.
Newcomb provides two reasons for this preference. The first reason is that the human mind naturally prefers a balanced state. There is an inherent tendency to prefer a good form of balance over a bad form of balance. Thus, perceiving an asymmetrical relationship as balanced or changing relationships to make them balanced creates a strain.
The second reason for seeking symmetrical relationships is that they help validate the person's own opinions about an attitude object or issue (X). When a friend (B) shares the same opinion about an attitude object (X), it enhances the person's confidence in their own opinion. Conversely, if the friend holds a different opinion, the person becomes less confident in their stance.
The question then arises: How can a person restore symmetry in an A-B-X model when it does not exist? In situations where there is asymmetry, tension is generated. Here are some possibilities for restoring symmetry:
- The husband (A) may try to persuade his wife (B) to change her attitude toward the issue (X).
- The husband may change his own attitude toward the issue (X).
- The husband may change his attitude toward his wife (B).
By changing any of the signs in the A-B-X model, the tension caused by asymmetry can be reduced. Additionally, there are other possibilities for reducing the strain towards symmetry:
- Reducing the importance of the topic on which husband and wife disagree.
- Reducing the common relevance of the issue.
The theory views interpersonal attraction in terms of economic exchange between two people, who assess rewards and costs of maintaining relationship and these are considered useful for explaining on-going, long-term relationship. Four concepts are basic to the exchange theory- reward, cost, outcome and comparison level. Each interaction, according to the theory, has some costs that must be paid and certain reward result. The costs and rewards are defined in broad terms. Any behavior on the part of one person that contributes to the satisfaction of needs of another is considered as rewards. Cost include punishment and deterrents in interacting with another person such as fatigue, anxiety, fear of embarrassment as well as rewards forgone as a consequence of interaction. Foa and Foa (1976) identified six types of interpersonal relationships involving exchange of different kinds of resources- status (relationship conferring esteem) money ( a token with an associated value) services (activities done for other person’s benefit) love ( affection, emotional support and warmth) goods ( object or products) information (views, information or counsel) For example, suppose A helps B in solving a difficult task. The costs incurred by A are his time and information that he is giving to B and reward many be the respect and affection he receives in exchange for the help provided.
The outcome of an action is determined by subtracting the costs from the rewards: Outcome = Rewards - Costs.
According to the theory, any interaction can be viewed at its costs, rewards and outcomes. The theory states that the persons seek out relationship that may maximize their outcomes. One can determine how lasting and satisfying an interaction will be by liking at the outcomes obtained by the participants. In general, if the outcome is positive, the person will be attracted and will want to continue the interaction, but if it is negative, the person may show disliking and will try to end the relationship.
Equity Theory
Equity theory explanation of interpersonal attraction moves a step forward than exchange theory by taking into account not only an individual’s own outcomes but also the outcomes perceived to be attained by the partner in relationship (Walster, Walster and Berscheid, 1978). The equity theory, first proposed by Adams(1965), suggests that the individuals expect resources to be distributed fairly. Basic to equity theory is the social comparison. Individuals compares their inputs and outcomes with those obtained by others in concern. Equity theory maintains that we seek to emphasis a balance between what we give and what we receive on the one hand and what the partner gives and receives on the other hand. In other words, the theory suggests that we try to maintain a balance between the rewards and costs we experience and those which our partner experiences. In case, if is felt that the partner is receiving more (or less) than his or her just due, the person will out of the relationship or by modifying his own feelings for the partner. For example, if a working wife feels that her husband leaves a lot of household works for her to be done, she may experience feeling of inequity and revaluate the relationship. During the period of inequity, she may develop a modest feeling of disliking, which may be restored to the liking after the feeling of inequity is reduced and a balance is maintained. Equity theory is different from equality. In other words, it is not necessary for both partners here to contribute an equal amount of input, if one partner contributes more than the other and also benefits more, the relationship is said to be equitable. On the other hand, if one partner receives less benefit than required by his or her contribution level, the person is said to be under benefited. Or partner is said to be over benefitted. In either case, the relationship is inequitable. According to Adams (1965), under-benefitted partners are less satisfied with their relationship, and therefore, they will be lass attracted towards their partners, equity theory states that the partners will feel comfort in their relationship only when the ratio between perceived contributions and benefits are equal.
The formula for equity theory can be summarized as follows: Perceived benefits of person A / Perceived contributions of person A = Perceived benefits of person B / Perceived contributions of person B.
