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Instrumental Conditioning in Clinical Psychology, Slides of Cognitive Psychology

The concept of instrumental conditioning, a learning process where voluntary behaviors are modified by rewards or punishments. The document delves into the work of b.f. Skinner, a leading figure in behaviorism, and his contributions to operant conditioning. It also discusses the role of dopamine in reinforcement and the impact of instrumental conditioning on neural pathways and synaptic plasticity.

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INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING
SUBMITTED BY: SRISHTI DASS
MASTERS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
SUBMITTED TO: DR.NEERJA PANDEY
ROLL NO. – A7403423017
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INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING

SUBMITTED BY: SRISHTI DASS
MASTERS IN CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY
SUBMITTED TO: DR.NEERJA PANDEY
ROLL NO. – A 7403423017

INTRODUCTION

Instrumental conditioning is a process of learning where

voluntary behaviors(controlled behavior)are modified by the association

with the addition or the removal of the reward. Instrumental

conditioning happens when an outcome is expected when an individual

learns a behavior. It is referred to a method as of learning involving

rewards and punishments for showing the desired behavior. It is also

known as operant conditioning. This process of learning was found by

B.F.Skinner. This is the originated work of Edward Thorndike, whose

law of effect theorized that behaviors arise as a result of whether their

consequences are satisfying or discomforting. In the 20

th

century

behaviorist psychologists studied the concept.

B.F. Skinner identified two key aspects of the operant conditioning

process: reinforcement and punishment. Reinforcement is meant to

increase a behavior, while punishment serves to decrease a behavior.

There are two different types of reinforcement and two different types of

punishment.

  • Positive reinforcement : Creating a favorable outcome to reinforce

a desired behavior. For example, rewarding a child with their favorite

treat after they clean their room. The reward may motivate the child to

clean their room again in the future because they associate the task with

getting something they like.

  • Negative reinforcement : Removing an unpleasant stimulus to

reinforce a desired behavior. For example, if your car loudly beeps at

you and your seatbelt is unbuckled, you may buckle up to avoid the

HISTORY B.F.SKINNER(1904-1940) is referred to as the father of instrumental conditioning. His 1938 book "The Behavior of Organisms: An Experimental Analysis", initiated his lifelong study of operant conditioning and its application to human and animal behavior. Skinner believed that classical conditioning was too simple to be used to describe something as complex as human behavior. This is also known as Skinnerian conditioning. He was born on March 20, 1904, in Susquehanna, Pennsylvania, and passed away on August 18, 1990, in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Skinner is best known for his contributions to the development of behaviorism and his work on operant conditioning. Skinner is considered one of the leading figures in behaviorism, a school of psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behaviors. He introduced the concept of operant conditioning, which involves modifying behavior through reinforcement or punishment. Skinner's work challenged the predominant views of Watsonian behaviorism (associated with John B. Watson), which focused on reflexes and stimulus- response associations. Skinner authored numerous influential books and articles, including "The Behavior of Organisms" (1938), "Walden Two" (1948), and "Beyond Freedom and Dignity" (1971). His most famous work, "Verbal Behavior" (1957), introduced a behaviorist account of language acquisition and verbal behavior. Burrhus Frederic Skinner (March 20, 1904 – August 18, 1990) was an American psychologist, behaviorist, inventor, and social philosopher. Considered the father of Behaviorism, he was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974

INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING BASED ON PHYSIOLOGY

Instrumental conditioning entails the strengthing of connections between

neural circuits that detect stimuli and neural circuits that produce

responses. One of these locations of these changes appears to be the

basal ganglia, especially the changes responsible for learning automated

and routine behaviors. The basal ganglia receive sensory information

and information about plans for movement from the movement from the

neocortex. Damage to the basal Ganglia disrupts automatic motor

responses (as opposed to deliberate ones) and even impairs the learning

of instrumental conditioning tasks.

Although several neurotransmitters may play a role in reinforcement,

one is particularly important: dopamine. The cell bodies of the most

important system of dopaminergic neurons are located in the ventral

tegmental area, and their axon

projects to the nucleus acumbens,

or the media forebrain bundle,

which unites with these to

structures, has reinforcing effects.

Infusions of dopamine agonists

directly into the nucleus

accumbens will reinforce an

animal’s behavior. both laboratory animals and humans will self-

administer dopamine agonists such as amphetamine or cocaine,

laboratory animals will press the lever to have amphetamine injected

directly into the nucleus accumbens.

Microdialysis studies have also shown that natural and artificial

reinforces stimulate the release of dopamine in the nucleus

ROLE OF BASAL GANGLIA

The basal ganglia receive sensory information from all regions of the

cerebral cortex. They also receive information from the frontal lobe

about movements that are planned or are actually in progress. The

outputs of the basal ganglia are sent from the frontal cortex to the

premotor or the supplementary cortex, where palms of movement are

made, and to the primary motor cortex, where they are executed.

REINFORCEMENT

The term "reinforcement" may refer to anything that increases the

positive or negative. probability that a response will occur. The term

"reinforcement psychology" refers to the effect of reinforcement on

behavior. Reinforcement may increase or strengthen the response.

NEURAL CIRCUITS INVOLVED IN REINFORCEMENT

Electrical stimulation of many parts of the brain is reinforcing (Old and Fobes 1981). The best and most reliable location is the Medial forebrain bundle(MFB), a bundle of axons that travels in a rostral-caudal axis from the midbrain to the rostral basal forebrain. The MFB passes to the lateral hypothalamus , and it is in this region that most investigators place the tip of the electrodes. The mesolimbic system begins in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the midbrain and projects rostrally to several forebrain regions, including the amygdala, the hippocampus , and the nucleus accumbens (NAC). This nucleus is located in the basal forebrain rostral to the preoptic area and immediately adjacent to the septum. The mesocortical system also plays a role in reinforcement. This system also begins in the ventral tegmental area but projects to the prefrontal cortex , the limbic cortex , and the hippocampus. A large body of experimental evidence indicates that the projections of the mesolimbic pathway that terminate in the nucleus accumbens are at least partly responsible for the reinforcing effects of electrical brain stimulation. These neurons plays an important role in the reinforcing effects of amphetamine, cocaine, and other drugs. Treatment that stimulant dopamine receptors in the nucleus accumbens behaviors the animals will press the lever that causes the electrical stimulation of the ventral tegmental area, the medial forebrain bundle, or the nucleus accumbens it’s self.

3. Initial Training : Introduce the lever-pressing task. When the rat presses the lever, a food pellet is dispensed. The rat learns to associate lever pressing with the delivery of a reward (positive reinforcement).

  1. Response Rate : Measure the rate of lever presses over time. Note how the behavior changes as the rat learns the contingency between pressing the lever and receiving food. 5. Variable Reinforcement Schedule : Introduce a variable reinforcement schedule (e.g., reinforcement is not given after every press). This is designed to examine the persistence of the learned behavior even when reinforcement is not guaranteed. 6. Extinction : Stop reinforcing the behavior. Observe how quickly the lever- pressing behavior diminishes when the reinforcement is no longer provided. 7. Punishment : Introduce a punishment contingency (e.g., a mild electric shock) to observe how the behavior is affected by negative consequences. Data Collection: Record the number of lever presses, the time taken to learn the task, and any changes in behavior during extinction or when punishment is introduced. Analysis : Analyze the data to understand the rate of learning, the effects of different reinforcement schedules, and the persistence or extinction of the behavior under various conditions. Skinner's experiments with the operant chamber laid the groundwork for understanding how behaviors are acquired, maintained, and modified through the principles of operant conditioning. These experiments continue to influence the field of psychology and behavior analysis. .
SCIENCETIFIC TERMS

Nucleus accumbens- a subcortical brain structure known primarily for its roles in pleasure, reward, and addiction. Amygdala - a small, almond-shaped structure inside of your brain. The amygdala participates in the regulation of autonomic and endocrine functions, decision- making and adaptations of instinctive and motivational behaviors to changes in the environment through implicit associative learning, changes in short- and long-term synaptic plasticity, and activation of the fight-or-flight response. Ventral Tegmental Area - The ventral tegmental area (VTA) located in the midbrain controls diverse behavioral repertoire, including reward processing, aversion, stress modulation, drug addiction, learning, and memory.

REFERENCES

Carlson, N. R. (2005). Foundations of Physiological Psychology (sixth

edition) (6th ed.). Pearson Education Asia.

Wikimedia Foundation. (2023, December 12). Main page. Wikipedia.

https://www.wikipedia.org/