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Important fact of Anatomy and physiology, Summaries of Nursing

Aryabhatta Knowledge UniversityNursing

200 important fact about Anatomy physiology

Typology: Summaries

2022/2023

Available from 08/18/2023

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200 IMPORTANT POINTS WITH DEFINITIONS
TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY
1. Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells
in an organ or tissue, usually resulting in increased
volume of the organ or tissue.
2. Hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of
cells, resulting in an increase in the size of the
organ.
3. Atrophy is the shrinkage in the size of the cell by
loss of cell substance.
4. Metaplasia is defined as a reversible change in
which one adult cell type (epithelial or mesenchymal)
is replaced by another adult cell type.
5. Cell swelling is the earliest sign of a reversible cell
injury.
6. Free radical is a chemical species that have a
single unpaired electron in an outer orbit.
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TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue, usually resulting in increased volume of the organ or tissue.
  2. Hypertrophy refers to an increase in the size of cells, resulting in an increase in the size of the organ.
  3. Atrophy is the shrinkage in the size of the cell by loss of cell substance.
  4. Metaplasia is defined as a reversible change in which one adult cell type (epithelial or mesenchymal) is replaced by another adult cell type.
  5. Cell swelling is the earliest sign of a reversible cell injury.
  6. Free radical is a chemical species that have a single unpaired electron in an outer orbit.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Necrosis is a spectrum of morphological changes that follow cell death in a living tissue largely resulting from the progressive degradative action of enzymes on the lethally injured cell.
  2. Necrosis has six major type; coagulative, Caseous, Liquefactive, fibrinoid,gangrenous and Fat.
  3. Apoptosis (Greek falling off) is defined as a pathway of programmed cell death that is aimed at a highly regulated intracellular programme in which cells destined to death by activated enzyme that degrade the cell’s DNA and nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins.
  4. Morphologically an apoptotic cell shows: a) cell shrinkage, b) chromatin condensation c) formation of cytoplasmic blebs and apoptotic bodies, d) phagocytosis by macrophages.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Inflammatory response consist of TWO main components: vascular & cellular, and divided into TWO main patterns: Acute and Chronic.
  2. Vasodilatation is one of the earliest manifestation of acute inflammation, if follows a transient vasoconstriction of arterioles lasting few seconds.
  3. Increased vascular permeability leading to the escape of a protein-rich fluid (exudate) into the extravascular tissue in the HALL MARK of acute inflammation.
  4. Formation of endothelial gaps in venules is the most common cause of vascular leakage.
  5. Leukocytes Adhesion molecular families have a major classes: a) Selectins (E,L & P types), b) Integrins, c) Immunoglobulin family of adhesion molecules and d) Mucin like glycoproteins.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Selectins mainly involved in rolling of leukocytes, PECAM in transmigration and immunoglobulin family in adhesions.
  2. Chemotaxis is defined as uni directional migration of leukocytes towards the site of injury under chemical gradient action.
  3. Most important chemotactic agents are C5a,LTB4 and bacterial products.
  4. Major opsonins are: C3b & Fc fragment of IgG proteins.
  5. H202-MPO-Halide systein is the most efficient bactericidal system in neutrophisl.
  6. Chediak-Higashi Syndrome is an autosomal recessive condition characterized by failure of fusion of phagosome with lysosome.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. SRS-A (slow releasing substance of anaphylaxis) constitutes LTC4, LTD4 & LTE promote vasoconstriction, bronchospasm & increased vascular permeability.
  2. Lipoxins are bioactive products generated from transcellular biosynthetic mechanisms involving neutrophils and platelets.
  3. IL-1 & TNF are two of the MAJOR cytokines that mediate inflammation.
  4. Major chemokines include: IL-8, MCP-1, eotaxin, MIP-1, Lymphotactin and RANTES.
  5. Nitric oxide plays major role in production of vasodilation by relaxing vascular smooth muscle in ischemic conditions.
  6. The major mediators of pain are Bradykinin & Prostaglandins.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Potent vasodilators are : Vasoactive Amines, Prostaglandins & NO.
  2. Acute inflammation is defined as a rapid response to an injurious agent that serves to deliver mediators of host defense – leukocytes and plasma proteins to the site of injury.
  3. Chronic inflammation is defined as an inflammation of prolonged duration, in which active inflammation, tissue destruction and attempts at repair are proceeding simultaneously.
  4. Neutrophils are the main cells of acute inflammation (exudates) while Mononuclear cells (with one nucleus are the main cells of chronic inflammation .Mononuclear cells include Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Macrophages and Plasma cells.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Stem cells are cells characterized by their prolonged self renewal capacity and by the asymmetric replication. They are of two types: embryonic & adult stem cells.
  2. VEGF & fibroblast Growth factor are mainly involved in angiogenesis.
  3. TGF-B is a growth inhibitor for most epithelial cells and leukocytes, potent fibrogenic agent and strong anti-inflammatory effect.
  4. Extracellualr matrix is formed of these groups of molecules : a) fibronectin b) adhesive glycoproteins and c) proteoglycans & hyaluronic acid.
  5. Collagens is the most common protein in the animal world, with 27 types discovered so far. Types I, II, III, V & X) are fibrillar and most common while type IV is non fibrillar.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Healing by 2nd intention differs from 1st intention in three ways; a) inflammatory reaction is more intense, b) Much more granulation tissue forms and c) wound contraction phenomenon.
  2. Accumulation of excessive amounts of collagen may give rise to a hypertrophic scar while if scar tissue grows beyond the boundaries of the original wound and does not regress, it is called keloid.
  3. Edema is defined as accumulation of fluid in the interstitial tissue spaces and body cavities.
  4. Local increased volume of blood in a particular tissue leads to Hyperemia and congestion. Hyperemia is an active process, resulting from augmented tissue inflow because of arteriolar dilation while Congestion is a passive process resulting from impaired outflow from tissue.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Fate of thrombus include: propagation embolization, dissolution, organization and recanalization.
  2. Embolus is a detached intravascular solid, liquid or gaseous mass that is carried by the blood to a site distant from its point of origin. The phenomenon is called embolism.
  3. Infarct is an area of ischemic necrosis caused by occlusion of either the arterial supply or the venous drainage in a particular tissue.
  4. The most dominant histologic characteristic of infarction is ischemic coagulative necrosis.
  5. Shock is the systemic hypoperfusion caused by reduction either in cardiac output or in the effective circulating blood volume, and resulting in hypotension followed by impaired tissue perfusion and cellular hypoxia.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Major types of shock include: cardiogenic, hypovolemic, septic, neurogenic and anaphylactic.
  2. Mutation is defined as a permanent change in the DNA.
  3. Marfan’s syndrome is a disorder of the connective tissue of the body, characterized by changes in the skeleton, eyes and cvs.Mainly cause by defects in an extracellular glycoprotein Firbillin-1.
  4. Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome comprise a clinically and genetically heterogenous groups of disorders that result from some defect in the syntesis or structure of fibrillar collagen.
  5. Amyloid is a pathologic proteinaceous substance deposited between cells in various tissues and organs of the body in a wide variety of clinical settings.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Four types of genes are normally working in human body: a) proto-oncogens b) antioncogenes, c) apoptotic genes and d)DNA repair genes
  2. Proto-oncogenes are changed to oncogenes by three processes: mutation, translocation and amplification.
  3. Major oncogenes are; RAS, ERB-B1, RET, KIT, ABL, C-MYC & N-MYC.
  4. Major antioncogenes are: RB, TP53, W.-1, NF-1, BRCA-1, APC.
  5. Oncogenic viruses include; Human Papilloma virus, Hepatitis B virus, Epstein Barr virus ,Kaposi Sarcoma Herpes viruses & Human T-Cell leukemia virus (The only oncogenic RNA virus).
  6. Chemical carcinogenesis is a multistep process, divided into initiation and promotion phases.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Major chemical carcinogens associated as include: Asbestos with Mesothelioma, Aniline dyes with TCC, Nitrates-Gastriccarcinoma, Aflatoxin with HCC, Vinyl chloride with Angiosarcoma Liver.
  2. Radiation induced malignancies include leukemias and papillary carcinoma thyroid.
  3. Major paraneoplastic synbdromes include, Cushing syndrome, ADH secretion by small cell carcinoma lung, Hypercalcemia by Squamous cell carcinoma lung, hypoglycemia by Fibrosarcoma and HCC, Polycythemia by RCC and hypertrophia osteoarthropathy by CA lung.
  4. Major tumor markers included : HCG for Choriocarcinoma, calcitonin for medullary carcinoma thyroid, alpha fetoprotein- HCC and Non-seminomatous germ cell tumor testis, CEA-CA colon, PAP For CA prostate, CA-125 for Ovarian CA , Ca 19-9 for CA Colon and pancreas ,CA 15-3 for CA breast.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Type IV Hypersensitivity reaction is called “delayed hypersensitivity”. It is mediated by sensitized CD4+T lymphocytes which process antigens in association with class II HLA molecules and release lymphokines.
  2. Immune reactions are divided into two broad categories: A) Humoral immunity-B-cell lymphocyte mediated via production of antibody and Often develops as a response to soluble antigens, and B) Cellular immunity-T-Cell lymphocyte mediated. CD4+helper lymphocytes: help B cells make antibody and also help to generate cytotoxic T cells.
  3. Major histocompatibility complex is present on all nucleated cells.
  4. The HLA system is a key factor in most Transplant rejection reactions. Reactions are mediated by either T lymphocytes or by antibody.

TO REMEMBER IN GENERAL PATHOLOGY

  1. Toll like receptors are membrane proteins that recognize a variety of microbe derived molecules and stimulate innate immune responses against the microbes.
  2. CD4 molecule is a high affinity receptor for HIV.
  3. Major autoimmune disease include Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, Sjogren’s syndrome, ankylosing spondylitis.
  4. Gamma interferon is one of the cytokine to activate macrophages and also play major Role in Granuloma formation.
  5. Cytokines are mediators released from one cell and modulate the actions of another cell.