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History of India up to 8th^ Century A.D.
Editorial Committee
Prof. T. K. Venkatasubramanian Professor (Retd.), Department of History, University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. Rajni Nanda Mathew Associate Professor, School of Open Learning, University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. V.K. Jain Associate Professor (Retd.) Department of History MotiLal Nehru College (M) University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. Anita Priyadarshini Associate Professor, Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi
Dr. Vikas Kumar Verma, Assistant Professor, Department of History, Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Content Writers
Dr. Rajni Nanda Mathew, Associate Professor,
Department of History,
School of Open Learning,
University of Delhi, Delhi
Prof. Nayanjot Lahiri, Former Professor, Department of History, University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. Vikas Kumar Verma,
Assistant Professor,
Department of History,
Ramjas College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Dr. Sheo Dutt, Associate Professor, Department of History, Shaheed Bhagat Singh College, University of Delhi, Delhi
Ms. Deeksha Bhardwaj,
Assistant Professor,
Department of History,
Gargi College,
University of Delhi, Delhi
Course Co-Ordinator
Dr. Rajni Nanda Mathew School of Open Learning, University of Delhi
India is a country which steadily developed through the ages and maintained a long cultural continuity. Every period of her history has left something to the present day. The purpose for the study of this course titled ‘History of India up to Eighth century AD’ is to know how, when and where people developed the earliest cultures in India and how they began undertaking agriculture and stock raising which made life secure and settled. And how eventually, the consequent dynamics of change ushered in by these developments led to the formation of the first civilization, kingdoms, empires, and early historic societies and cultures. In other words, it gives an account of the development of civilization in India from the earliest times till the eighth century of the Common Era. As an eminent historian has observed, “The study of ancient history shows how the ancient Indians discovered and utilized natural resources and how they created the means for their livelihood; how they made arrangements for food, shelter and transport; how they took to farming, spinning, weaving, metal working and the like; and also how they cleared forests, founded villages, cities and eventually large kingdoms”.
UNIT I
The course will be dealt with in two units, each in turn consisting of several lessons. The present unit is called Unit I and contains eight lessons. The first lesson deals with various kinds of sources which provide information for the reconstruction of ancient India. It also throws light on the historical trends in the context of studies on ancient Indian history. The second lesson attempts to explain how environment and geographical features have great bearings on the history of people with special reference to the Indian subcontinent. The third lesson is on the Palaeolithic and Mesolithic cultures in the Indian subcontinent including the geographical distribution of the archaeological sites, tool types discovered and the subsistence pattern. The fourth lesson deals with the characteristic features of the Neolithic period in the subcontinent the developments leading to food production along with the distribution of Neolithic sites in different regions. The fifth lesson deals with various aspects related to the orgin, rise and decline of the Harappan Civilization. It also contains information about the material characteristics of the urban character of the Harappan Civilization such as town planning, agriculture, trade, craft production etc. The sixth lesson discusses about the growth and nature of Neolithic-Chalcolithic agricultural settlements outside the extent of the Harappan Civilization. The seventh lesson deals with the questions related to the original homeland of the Aryans, and also with the social, political, economic and religious conditions of Vedic people as reflected in the Vedic literature. The eighth lesson explains about the origin and spread of Megalithic cultures in South India. It also helps us to understand the nature and traits of settlements belonging to these cultures.
be known as historiography. We shall now attempt to briefly study the dominant historical trends from mid-eighteenth century onwards.
1.2 Historical Trends
In the eighteenth century, the growing administrative responsibility of the East India Company necessitated its officers to be familiar with the laws, habits, customs and history of the Indian people; in other words to know systematically about the country they were to rule. The initial efforts in this direction resulted in the establishment in Calcutta in 1784 of the Asiatic Society of Bengal.
1.2.1The Orientalists or Indologists
The modern historical writing began after the establishment of the East India Company. The writings of European scholars usually referred to as the Orientalists or Indologists, dominated the 18th^ and 19th^ centuries. The most important of them was Sir William Jones, an employee of the East India Company, who gave a boost to Indology. Sir William Jones (1746-
- along with Charles Wilkins developed keen interest in Indian literature and culture. However, the greatest impetus to Indological studies was given by the German-born scholar F. Max Mueller (1823-1902), who never visited India and spent most of his time in England. He propounded the idea of a common Indo-European homeland and heritage. Several early orientalists like Max Mueller spoke emphatically about the unchanging Indian village communities. They depicted India as a country of philosophers but at the same time believed that the Indian mind lacked the ability for political and material speculation. They stated that the ancient Indians lacked a sense of history and were accustomed to despotic rule. The Western scholars stressed that Indians had no notion either of nationhood or of any form of self government.
1.2.2 Charles Grant and the Utilitarians
The Christian missionaries led by Charles Grant and the Utilitarians like James Mill did not share the early orientalist view of India, were hostile to Indian culture in their writings and are said to have created “Indophobia” by describing Indians as barbaric, irrational and having no concern for political values. They described Indian society as unprogressive and stagnant.
1.2.3 The British-Administrator Historians
Vincent A Smith was the best known of the British-Administrator historians. He made a systematic survey of early Indian history. Smith believed that India had a long tradition of oppressive despots and exaggerated the ruthlessness of ancient Indian kings. He described Kautilya’s penal code as ‘ferociously severe’.
Thus the British scholars had different perceptions of early India. They wrote with a view to justify colonial rule and the exploitation of its Indian resources thus distorting historical evidence in the process.
1.2.4 The Indian Scholars
Indian scholars influenced by Indian reformist leaders, and also by the growing nationalism and political awakening presented a great challenge to the British views. They took upon themselves to reconstruct ancient Indian history in such a way so as to make a case for social reforms and self-government. Notable among them were R.L. Mitra, R.G. Bhandarkar, S.K. Iyenger, K. A. N. Sastri, K.P. Jaiswal, R.C. Majumdar, V.K. Rajwade, and P.V. Kane etc. These scholars defended Hinduism under the influence of social reformers who asserted that Hinduism embraced all religions in its fold. Reformers preached that revival of Hinduism was essential for the growth of India as a nation. But scholars failed to acknowledge the fact that Hinduism was at best an umbrella term for the different Indian religious thoughts, beliefs and practices prevalent in the Indian subcontinent.
The issues related with the Aryan race also stirred the imagination of the nationalist leaders as well as historians. Though the early orientalists had established connection between Sanskrit and certain European languages, Indian scholars now regarded India as the cradle for the Indo-Aryans who were the fonders of one of the earliest human civilizations. Resultantly, they pushed back the antiquity of Indian culture. However, the discovery of the Harappan Civilization proved a challenge to the assertions made by such scholars, but R.L. Mitra, R.G. Bhandarkar and V.K. Rajvade generally adopted a rational attitude to the past. They were basically social reformers and against this background of reforms and study of ancient Indian texts that they made significant contributions to the reconstruction of the political and religious history of early Indian. For example, Bhandarkar supported widow re-marriage and denounced the evils of caste system and child marriage. Rajwade’s study in Marathi on the evolution of the institution of marriage is a classic insight on the subject.
But the Indian historical scholars, who were initially inspired by the ideas of social reforms, gradually became anti-imperialist. The spurt in changes on Indian political scene after the partition of Bengal in 1905 and the awakening of militant nationalism, made a mark on the historical writings. The gradual change in historical writings was seen partly as a reaction to the imperialist views of India’s past and partially as an effort to build national esteem. Hindu culture was looked upon as the precursor of other Asian cultures. The ancient period of Indian history, thus came to be glorified as one of social peace, harmony and prosperity. The age of the Guptas was considered as the ‘Golden Age’ of ancient India.
The nationalist historians also began to attribute the highest achievements in the field of political thought and practice to ancient Hindus. The discovery of Kautilya’s Arthashastra and its publication later in 1909 drew comparison in the social legislation of Bismarck and socio- economic policies of Kautilya. Ancient Indian tribal oligarchies were equated with Athenian democracy. Parallels were also drawn between the constitutional monarchy of Britain and Kautilyan kingship. All these writings demonstrated that the tradition of democratic government was well entrenched into the Indian Political System. These writings sharpened the edge of freedom struggle. They highlighted the ancient period as glorious overlooking the inequalities and limitations of the past and furthered the struggle of the Indians against the British, thereby providing an ideological weapon to the freedom movement.
combined with new theoretical perspectives, has transformed our understanding of the early Indian past.
Check your progress exercise 1
A. State True or False:
(i) The Orientalists created “Indophobia” by describing Indians as barbaric, irrational and having no concern for political values.
(ii) Chales Grant shared the early orientalist view of India.
(iii)Vincent A Smith was the best known of the British-administrator historians.
(iv) R.G. Bhandarkar supported widow re-marriage and denounced the evils of caste system and child marriage.
(v) Marxist scholars shifted focus from traditional event-centred history to the study of social, economic and cultural history.
B. Name any two Indian historical scholars who were also social reformers.
C. Long Questions
(i) Describe briefly the Imperialists’ perception of the history and culture of ancient India. How did the nationalist reformers and historians attempt to change this perception?
1.3 Sources of Ancient Indian History
1.3.1 Introduction
The knowledge of India's ancient past can be gathered from literary as well as archaeological sources. Although the art of writing was known as early as the third millenium BCE, our ancient manuscripts are not older than fourth century CE. It was so, not because ancient Indians lacked historical sense but because of the fact that the ancient Indians kept records of only those aspects which they felt were significant. The political events did not find a systematic compilation in a chronological order. In the absence of any proper written literary records, our knowledge of ancient Indian history and culture is from the archaeological sources namely inscriptions, coins, monuments and other material remains. Thus, for a better comprehension of India's past, the evidence from the literary sources has to be corroborated through cross-checking with the archaeological evidence. We shall now take up the various sources available to us one by one for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history.
1.3.2 Literary Sources
The literature available to us can be classified into two groups namely indigenous literature which for the sake of convenience can be further sub-divided into religious and non- religious and foreign literature of the foreign travellers.
Indigenous literature
Religious Texts
The ancient Indian literature was mostly religious in nature and was not written with the conscious aim of recording events of the past. The socio-religious scriptures can be classified into Brahmanical, Buddhist and Jain.
The Brahmanical Literature
The four Vedas- Rig, Sama, Yajur and Atharva ; the Brahmana s ; the Aranyakas ; the Upanishads ; the two Sanskrit epics namely the Ramayana and the Mahabharata ; the Puranas and the Dharamashastras constitute the Brahmanical literature. Each Veda has four parts – the Samhita , the Brahmana , the Aranyaka and the Upanishad. The Vedic Samhitas give an account of the life of Aryans in addition to their philosophy, religion, etc. The Brahmanas are the commentaries and prose explanations of the Samhitas. They mostly deal with the ritualistic aspects of religion. They give details of sacrificial rituals and their outcome. The Aranyakas or the ‘Forest Books’ contains philosophical interpretation of the various sacrificial rituals. The Upanishads , too, form a part of the mystical and philosophical literature and are closely associated with the concepts of Atman and Brahman. While criticizing the rituals, the Upanishads laid stress on the value of right belief and knowledge.
It is difficult to give Vedas an exact date as they were transmitted orally from one generation to another and were not committed to writing until very late.Most historians take 1500-1000 BCE as the period of composition of the early Vedic literature and 1000-500 BCE as that of later Vedic texts. Vedic literature has little trace of political history but gives us a good glimpse of culture and civilization in the parts of north-western and northern India during the 2nd and 1 st^ millennia BCE. We must also remember that almost every Vedic text contains interpolations.
Vedanga literature was composed between 600 and 200 BCE in order to assist the understanding of the Vedas. Six in number, the Vedangas included works on phonetics ( shiksha ), ritual ( kalpa ), grammar ( vyakarana ), etymology (nirukta ), metrics (chhanda ), and astronomy ( jyotisha).
The two Epics – the Ramayana and the Mahabharata – provide significant information on the economic, religious, social and political conditions of their times. The composition of the Mahabharata is placed between 400 BCE and 400 CE. It is believed that originally it consisted of 8800 verses but the final compilation increased the verses to 10,000. Its narrative portion consisting of Kaurava-Pandava conflict relates to the Later Vedic period; the descriptive portion to the Post-Vedic period; and the didactic portion to the post-Mauryan and Gupta periods. Similarly, the Ramayana was composed between the 5th^ century BCE and the 3rd^ century CE and originally consisted of 6,000 verses which were increased to 12,000 and eventually to 24,000. The major Puranas also seem to have been finally compiled by c. 400 CE. The Puranas are encyclopaedic in content associated with different kind of rituals and practices, and also provide dynastic history up to the beginning of Gupta rule.
states of pre-Mauryan times. Patanjali's Mahabhashya is a commentary on Panini but also furnishes accounts of post-Mauryan times.
Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya and Varahamihira's Brihatsamhita are important astronomical texts while Charaka Samhita and Sushruta Samhita are renowned works on medicine.
Of the ancient dramas, the Dutavakya , Balacharita, Svapna-Vasavadatta by Bhasa, the Mudrarakshasa and Devichandragupta by Vishakadatta and the classic works of Kalidasa including both kavyas and dramas such as Äbhijnanshakuntalam, Malvika-Agnimitram, Raghuvamsa etc. reflect the social and cultural conditions of the times of which the writers belonged.
Besides the Sanskrit works, we also have some Tamil works constituting the corpus of Sangam literature assigned to the early centuries of the CE. The Sangam literature is a major source of information for the social, economic and political life of the people living in Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the early centuries of the CE.
A number of dynastic historical chronicles have been found in different parts of Northern India. Only some important chronicles are mentioned below. In Gujarat the following well- known works have been discovered: the Ras-Mala and Kirti-Kaumudi of Somesvara, the Prabandha-Kosa of Rajasekhara, the Vasanta - Vilasa of Balachandra etc. These works contain both fables and facts. In Sind, in early thirteenth century, with the initiative of the Arabs, was started the writing of local historical chronicle named the Chachnama. It narrates in details the Arab conquest of Sind. Only the translated versions of the Chachnama in Persian have reached us. They also contain the historical background of the century previous to the Arab conquest of Sind i.e. the early seventh Century. Local chronicles of Nepal are known as Vamsavalis. Early portions of these works are, “purely mythical”, while the accounts narrated in them since first century CE contain some materials relating to history of Nepal as they bear a list of the names of Kings with the duration of their reigns. In Assam local chronicles of Kamarupa Sansnavali are one of the important sources for reconstructing the history of late Hindu period of Kamarupa in Assam.
Foreign Literature
The accounts of the foreigners or foreign travellers supplement the indigenous literature. The identification of Prince Sandrokottas (mentioned by Greek writers as a contemporary of Alexander the Great) with Chandragupta Maurya has served as the sheet anchor in ancient Indian chronology. The works of Arrian, Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy and Periplus of the Erythraean Sea written by an anonymous Greek navigator help us in the study of ancient Indian geography and commerce. The Indika of Megasthenes, an ambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya, gives a descriptive account of the administration, society, and economic activities in the time of the Mauryas. The Greek accounts are not completely reliable as they are based more on hearsay than on personal experiences of the writer. Also most of the Greek writers were ignorant of the Indian languages which might have affected their impressions and knowledge of our country.
The best known among the Chinese travellers were Fa Xian (Fa-Hien) and Xuan Zang (Hiuen- Tsang) who provide us with useful information regarding the social, religious and economic life during the reign of Chandragupta II and Harsha respectively.
The Tibetan historian Taranath in his History of Buddhism gives us information about Buddhism and its spread. The accounts of Arab travellers mostly deal with India and its inhabitants and also throw light on trade and aspects of political history. Alberuni's Tehquiq-i- Hind describes the socio-economic and political condition of India in the 11th^ century.
Check your progress exercise 2
A. Name the authors of the following texts:
(i) Buddhachrita (ii) Harshacharita (iii) Ashtadhyayi (iv) Arthashastra (v) Nitishastr a (vi) Mahabhashya (vii) Mudrarakshsa (viii) Svapna-Vasavadatta (ix) Raghuvamsa (x) Rajtarangini.
B. Name any two texts belonging to each of the following:
(i) Buddhist literature (ii) Jaina literature.
1.3.3 Limitation of Literary Sources
If we had to rely on literary sources alone, our information would have been incomplete. The greatest handicap in the study of the history of ancient India is the absence of a definite chronology. But this gap has been filled by actual remains of this period in the shape of coins, inscriptions and monuments. We do not have continuous written records of the past because some have been destroyed with passage of time. Even the available literary sources, such as court literature, foreign accounts etc. may contain different kinds of biases. It is at this stage that the actual remains of the past come to the rescue of the historians to form a fair and objective assessment of the events that took place.
1.3.4 Archaeological Sources
As historical evidence, the archaeological sources take precedence over the literary evidence because, as has already been pointed out, the age and authorship of most of our ancient texts are uncertain. Also, as a result of various additions and interpolations made over a period of time, they have undergone modifications. Besides, the account given in the literary sources is more often coloured with the state of the mind of the author and in order to grasp the real significance of the historical events mentioned in these works, it becomes absolutely essential to give due consideration to the author's point of view while interpreting their statements.
Archaeological evidence helps us in solving chronological problems. We often get valuable proof of date by a careful examination of the stratification of the ruins on ancient sites. Important excavations at a large number of sites including those at Harappa, Mohenjodaro, Nalanda, Taxila, Sarnath, Arikamedu etc. have contributed largely to our knowledge of the past. Archaeology is our only source of knowledge for the prehistoric period. It enables us to know a
Private inscriptions are more numerous than the official ones. They are mostly engraved in temples or on images of stones or metals. These have provided us information concerning dates of construction of temples, the development of architecture and sculpture at various places during different times and also the growth of regional languages. Thus, these inscriptions have been of great help in tracing the evolution of art and religion and also in determining the general conditions in any specific period.
The history of Satavahana rulers has been based mostly on their inscriptions. Similarly, the inscriptions of the south Indian rulers like the Pallavas, the Chalukyas, the Rashtrakutas, the Cholas and the Pandyas have been of great help in finding historical facts of the rule of their respective dynasties.
Certain inscriptions found outside India throw valuable light on the relations of India with foreign countries. Ashokan inscriptions clearly indicate that he sent his religious preachers to Burma, Ceylon, the Himalayan Terrai, Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, Greece etc.
Coins
Next to the inscriptions, coins are another important archaeological source of history of ancient India. Hoards of gold, silver and copper coins have been unearthed in different parts of the country which provide us valuable information regarding Indian history till the Gupta age (6th century CE). The study of coins is known as Numismatics. Numismatic evidence, though comparatively less important than its inscriptional counterpart, forms a very authentic source of information on certain periods of ancient India. It can be broadly divided into two distinct periods: pre and post-Mauryan period. Coins in the period prior to the Mauryas are generally of two types: the punch-marked coins and the coins cast in die. These coins were issued both by the monarchical and the republican states, on the one hand, and by private merchants, trade guilds, city corporations and other small private bodies on the other.
The earliest coins, made mostly of silver and, in a much lesser quantity, of copper, were the punch-marked coins, which did not contain any name but figures and symbols only. These coins were made by imprinting symbols on the obverse and reverse by individual punches. We also come across uninscribed cast copper coins and punch-marked coins with symbols. These were made by pouring molten metal in casts bearing the negatives of these designs.
It is not till after the Greek invasion that we come across coins with the names of kings clearly engraved on them. The history of the Bactrian, Parthian and Scythian princes in India has been reconstructed almost solely on the basis of a careful study of the coins issued by them. These coins contained the busts and the names of the rulers. A large number of coins of the Saka rulers also contained the dates according to the Saka era thereby enabling the historians not only to draw dynastic lists but also to determine the chronology of the ruling powers.
Thereafter, plenty of gold coins of the Kushana and Gupta rulers are also available. The Kushanas continued the tradition of bilingual (Greek and Khroshthi) inscriptions but their coinage also displays Iranian and Indian influence. The number of coins belonging to the post- Gupta period is severely limited. The coins of great emperors like Harsha or ruling dynasties like
the Chalukyas, Rashtrakutas, Pratihara, or Palas, not to speak of lesser kings and dynasties, are either unknown or of little significance.
Coins have helped us in finding out the names and dates of various rulers besides helping us indirectly in assessing the economic and religious conditions of the times when they were issued. Some historians have endeavoured to ascertain the economic condition of India at different times by scientifically examining the gold, silver and copper coins issued during the concerned periods. The coins provide us information about personal traits of the rulers and the deities they worshiped. Besides giving us an idea about the extent of the empire of a ruler, coins can enlighten us on the various kinds of art and its development, such as the art of writing, the art of moulding metal etc.
Moreover, coins are also a principal source of our information regarding the various Indian states, both monarchical and republican, that flourished during the ancient period. The history of the Mitra rulers of Panchala, Malavas, and Yaudehas has been almost exclusively reconstructed on the basis of their coins.
Finally, coins in several ways, supplement the information acquired through literature. Many a time, the coins alone have brought to light certain rulers who were not mentioned anywhere in the literature. For example, in our literature, there is a mention of only three or four Greek rulers in India, where as about thirty-three such rulers ruled in India for two centuries.
In addition to coins and inscriptions, we have other archaeological remains in the form of buildings, pottery, statues of stones, etc. which help us in tracing the history and evolution of Indian art. The excavations at Harappa and Mohenjodaro tell us that long before the Aryans, there flourished an advanced civilization in the valley of the Indus. The systematic excavations of the ancient sites like Taxila or the monastic establishments at Sarnath have thrown light upon Buddhist way of life. The stone temples in south India and the brick monastaries in Eastern India still remind us of the great building activities of the past. The Megaliths reveal the way of life of the people in the Deccan from the Iron Age onwards.
Ruined Cities and Monuments
The most important aspect of archaeological source is the large number of excavated ruined cities wherein lie a large number of monuments.
The following are the important excavated cities and towns of ancient India, Rajgir (ancient Rajagriha), Vaishali, Nalanda, Bodh Gaya, etc., in Bihar, Peshawar (ancient Purushapura), Taxila etc., in North-western Frontier Province and the Punjab; Ujjain, Sanchi etc., in Madhya Pradesh; Bairat, Rairh, Sambhar, etc., in Rajasthan; Langhnaj, Patan, Amreli, etc., in Gujarat; Kolhapur, Kondapur etc., in Deccan; Chandravali, Brahmagiri etc., in Mysore; Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda etc., in Andhra Pradesh; Virampattanam etc. in Tamil Nadu; Mathura; Varanasi, Sravasti, Kausambi, Ahichchhatra, Hastinapur etc., in U.P.; Parihaspur, Avantipur, Martand etc., in Kashmir.
(iii)The earliest coins, made mostly of silver and, in a much lesser quantity, of copper, were the – -------------- coins. (iv) The study of inscriptions is called ----------.
(v) – -----------located on the bank of the Bolan river in the Kochi plain (Baluschistan), is the only known Neolithic settlement in the Indian subcontinent, attributed to approximately 7000 B.C. (vi) – ----------- reveal the way of life of the people in the Deccan from the iron age onwards.
B. Short Notes:
(i) Literary sources of ancient Indian history including the accounts of foreign historians and travelers (ii) Archeological sources of ancient Indian history
C. Long Question:
(i) What are the various sources for the reconstruction of ancient Indian history? Discuss each of them briefly.
1.4 Let us Sum up
Modern research in the history of ancient India began only in the second half of the eighteenth century. British scholars had different perceptions of early India. They wrote with a view to justify colonial rule and its exploitation of Indian resources thus distorting historical evidence in the process. Indian scholars influenced by Indian reformist leaders, and also by the growing nationalism and political awakening presented a great challenge to the British views. These Indian scholars took upon themselves to reconstruct ancient Indian history in such a way so as to make a case for social reforms and self-government. With the writing of D D Kosambi, the 1950s saw the emergence of Marxist historiography in Indian history writings. Only an impartial scientific observation without any expectations and prejudices can help in the reliable and objective reconstruction of the past. Writing of an objective and comprehensive history involves a careful examination and unbiased interpretation of all the available sources such as the literary sources, the archaeological sources and the account of the foreign travellers.
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 1
A. (i) False (ii) False (iii) True (iv) True (v) True
B. R.G. Bhandarkar and V.K. Rajwade.
C. See Section 1.2.
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 2
A. (i) Ashvaghosha (ii) Banabhatta (iii) Panini (iv) Kautilya (v) Kamandaka
(vi) Patanjali (vii) Vishakadatta (viii) Bhasa (ix) Kalidasa (x) Kalhana.
B (i) Dipavamsa, Lalitvistara (ii) Agama, Parishishtaparvan.
Answers to Check Your Progress Exercise 3
A. (i) Numismatics (ii) Prasastis (iii) Punch-marked (iv) Epigraphy (v) Mehrgarh (vi) The Megaliths.
B. Short Notes: (i) See section 1.3. (ii) See section 1.3.
C. Long Question: (i) See section 1.
