Download History of Geographic Thoughts and more Study notes Human Geography in PDF only on Docsity!
1.1 General Character of Geography in the Ancient Period-Contribution of Herodotus, Eratosthenes, Strabo and Ptolemy
Greeks
The Greeks pioneered in many branches of knowledge. The period of unprecedented advancements in various fields of knowledge by Greek scholars is known as “Golden Age of Greece”. They borrowed many of the concepts of astronomy, geometry and mathematics from the Egyptians, Chaldaeans, Sumerians and Assyrians. Geography as a field of learning in the western world had its beginnings among the scholars of ancient Greece. The geographical knowledge in the earliest ages was, however limited to the countries and islands adjacent to Greece and the group of nations surrounding the Aegean Sea. Between 5th and 3rd century BC, the Greek colonies were established in different parts of the Mediterranean Sea and Black Sea. Miletus, owing to its location, became the main centre of geographical enquiry during 5th century BC. The early expeditions of Hanno along the western coast of Libya and that of Alexander towards the east provided knowledge of the distant places and its people. The establishment of the famous library museum at Alexandria further paved the way for the development of scientific discoveries. It was in Alexandria that Eratosthenes and Hipparchus made their observations about the size, shape and circumference of the earth. HERODOTUS (484/485-425 BC) Introduction to Herodotus Herodotus was the first and foremost Greek historian, and is regarded as the ‘Father of History’. Little is known of his personal history. The Histories - his masterpiece and the only work he is known to have produced - is a record of his ‘inquiry’ being an investigation of the origins of the Greco-Roman Wars. He placed historical events in a geographical setting; some of his writings are truly geographical in character. He not only described geographical phenomena as, for example, the annual flow of the Nile but also attempted to explain them. He was also one of the pioneer geographers. In fact, he is credited with the very old idea that all history must be treated geographically and all geography must be treated historically.
Geographic Knowledge and Travels Herodotus was a great traveler and his contribution to geography is highly remarkable as he wrote after making his personal observations during his many years of travel. Towards the west, he knew the Mediterranean shores as far as southern Italy, where he resided during the latter part of his life. He travelled through the straits into the Black Sea. He also went eastward over much of the territory of the Persian Empire, visiting Susa and Babylon. Toward the south, he visited Egypt and went up the Nile. Moreover, he was quite familiar with the coasts of Asia Minor, as also with the island of the Aegean, the mainland of Greece.
Division and Boundaries of Land The land, according to him, is divided into two equal parts, one lying to the north of the Caucasus mountains and the Caspian Sea. Thus, Europe was taken to be equivalent to Asia and Libya (Africa) combined. Herodotus was also the first scholar who divided the world landmass into three continents, namely, Europe, Asia and Libya (Africa). The size of Europe has, however, been taken as equivalent to Asia and Libya (Africa) combined. It is surprising that he took the western frontier of Egypt as the boundary between Asia and Libya. Asia and Europe were divided by the Don river, the Caspian Sea and Araxes (Amu). About the Nile River, he stated that it flowed in a direction from west to east, dividing Libya through the middle into two parts. The source of the Nile was in the west of Libya. He also insisted that Egypt was occupied by Egyptians and they are not divided into Asians and Libyans along the river. This can be taken as one of the earliest discussions of regional boundaries. Understanding of Continents and Seas So far as the spread of continents is concerned, Herodotus did not have a clear idea and could not fix the northern limit of Europe. He also did not have any idea of the existence of the north-eastern seas. On the southern side, he felt that the ocean sprawled continuously from the coast of India to that of Spain. He was familiar with the Arabian Sea, the Indian Ocean (Arythraean) and the Atlantic Ocean and believed in only two inland seas, one stretching northward and the second eastward from the Indian Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean respectively, i.e. Red Sea (Arabian Gulf) and the Mediterranean Sea. He was ignorant of the Persian Gulf. So far as the Black Sea is concerned, he had himself navigated in it. He wrote that the Black Sea, ‘the most wonderful of all seas’, is 1,100 stadia (110 miles) in length and at the widest portion it is 1,300 stadia ( miles). Herodotus is the first geographer who regarded the Caspian as an inland sea, whereas Hecataeus and his contemporaries as well as all the geographers of Alexandrian era considered it as an arm of the Northern Ocean. Geographical Explanations and Insights He insisted that the Nile Valley, especially its delta, has been built by silt and mud brought down by the river from Ethiopia. He explained the process of delta making and stressed the point that the delta of Meander River (West Turkey) was also the result of river deposition. Similarly, he tried to establish a relationship between temperature and the movement of winds. Herodotus’ Knowledge of Asia and Africa Herodotus knowledge of Asia was confined mainly to the Persian Empire which sprawled over the whole of Western Asia. He was not familiar with the fertile Gangetic plain and considered the Indus as flowing in a west east direction. Herodotus also possessed enormous information about the continent of Africa. His knowledge of the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea was as accurate as that of its northern coast. Divisions and Zones of Africa With the western coast of Africa, Herodotus was less acquainted. The northern coast of Africa was divided into the eastern and western portions. The eastern part was sandy and its people were nomads. The land was barren. The western tract was characterized by hills, fertile valleys and dense forests. The western coast of the coastal Africa was occupied by primitive tribes. Herodotus divided the interior parts of Africa into three latitudinal zones. The first zone is the Mediterranean coast from Atlas Mountains to the delta of Nile. The second zone to the south of it is the area of 'wild beasts'. By the Arabs this was called the 'land of dates'. The third zone which lies further south is the true Sahara desert. ERATOSTHENES (276-194 BC) Introduction to Eratosthenes Eratosthenes is often identified as the ‘father of geography’ as among other contributions, he was the first to coin the word ‘Geography’. Eratosthenes was a Greek mathematician, geographer, astronomer, poet and music theorist.
He thought that the Torrid Zone was 48 degrees in total: 24 degrees in north and 24 degrees in the south. The Frigid Zones extended 24 degrees from each pole. The temperate zones were between the polar and tropic circles.
ROMANS
After the Greeks, the political power passed into the hands of the Romans. The Roman armies made advances in different directions, especially in Central Europe, France, Britain and Asia Minor. They, with the help of their well-disciplined armies were able to conquer distant countries. Pompey in Albania and Asia Minor made significant conquests while Gaul (France) and Britain were overwhelmed by Caesar. The Romans' major contribution was to historical and regional geography. It was Strabo who compiled the regional and historical geography of the world. A very large part of what scholars thought they knew about ancient geography came from Strabo. Most of the books written by earlier scholars have disappeared entirely or survived only in fragments. But Strabo's monumental work on geography is almost intact, with only a very few minor parts missing. STRABO (64 BC - 24 AD) Strabo’s Background and Contribution Strabo was a Greek geographer, born in Amesia, south of Black Sea coast in Turkey in 64 BC. Amesia was the capital of barbarian kings and had a large Greek population. Strabo is considered as the ‘Father of Regional Geography’, because he substituted divisions based on natural boundaries (such as mountains, rivers etc.) for the less permanent and artificially drawn political units. He was the first to declare geography as a chorological science. Geographical Knowledge and Journey He journeyed Egypt, Ethiopia, and Asia Minor. He visited Corinth (in Greece) at the time of Augustus and in about 29 BC went to Rome where he stayed for several years. From Rome he came to Alexandria and made a voyage on the Nile up to Syene. He saw very little of Italy and Greece. In Greece, his visits were confined to Corinthus, Athens, Megara and Argos. The Adriatic coast of Italy was also (unknown world) to him. He was better acquainted with Asia Minor. The main feature of Strabo's geographical account lies in the fact that it was the first attempt at bringing together all the then known geographical knowledge in the form of general treatise. He laid the foundation of chorological writing in geography, and he was the first who codified the term ‘ chorology ’ most elegantly. Strabo’s Geographical Treatise Geographical Treatise: He wrote 17 volumes of his geographical treatise. Strabo is the first scholar who conceived the idea of a complete geographical treatise, comprising all four branches of the discipline, namely, mathematical, physical, political, and historical geography.
Approach to Political and Natural Boundaries: Strabo's geographical treatise, namely, Geographica was designed not for geographers but for politicians and statesmen. It was Strabo who stressed on the division of the world into natural and not into political boundaries. In his opinion, divisions of an area can be established only by boundaries and geography should divide the world by the ‘natural boundaries of lands’ rather than the ‘political boundaries of states’. Contribution of Mathematical Geography: In the field of mathematical geography, Strabo's contribution cannot be termed outstanding when compared with that of his predecessor (Eratosthenes). His work was not designed for astronomers and mathematical geographers. Nor was it meant to help them to determine the shape and size of the earth, its relation with heavenly bodies and the important latitudes (Equator, Tropic of Cancer, and Tropic of Capricorn). Understanding Earth’s Divisions and Zones: He also assumes the division of the earth into five zones and the circles upon the sphere derived from the motion of the celestial bodies, i.e. the equator, the zodiac, the tropics and the Arctic Circle. He regarded Ireland as the most northerly of all the known lands. Strabo’s Work in Physical Geography: In the field of physical geography also, his work cannot be regarded as outstanding but there is no denying the fact that it was a great improvement over his predecessors' works. Unfortunately, Strabo gave little attention to topographic features, mountains, rivers and their courses while giving geographical accounts of different regions. Strabo's work is mainly historical. Strabo’s Objective of Presenting a General Survey of the Habitable World: The main objective of Strabo in his geographical treatise was to present a general survey of the entire habitable world known during that period. Spain, Gaul (France), the coast of the Atlantic, south-eastern parts of Britain - all these areas were fairly known and thus the Romans opened out all the western parts of Europe up to the river Albis (Elbe) and the region beyond the Danube and the river Tyras. The tracts on the north of Black Sea and along its eastern coast to the borders of Colchis were plotted in the world map of Strabo. Strabo's Knowledge and Limitations in Geographical Mapping: With regard to India, the Peninsula of Hindustan continued to be unknown, and the Ganges was regarded as flowing into the Eastern Ocean. Regarding Africa, the upper course of Nile (Cinnamon Land) was the southern-most limit, as far as Strabo was concerned. He did not describe Mauretania and the western coast of Africa.
Geography of Africa (Especially Egypt): The seventeenth and final volume of Strabo's work focuses on Africa, with the majority of the book dedicated to the geography of Egypt. Strabo gathered detailed information about Egypt from the library at Alexandria, and he personally traveled up to the upper reaches of the Nile River. He provides thorough descriptions of the Nile delta, the Nile's sources, and the annual inundation of the river. Strabo explains that the flooding, a topic of much curiosity among early Greeks, was believed to be caused by heavy summer rains in the mountains of upper Ethiopia. PTOLEMY (90-168 AD) Introduction and Background of Ptolemy Claudius Ptolemy was a native of Egypt a Roman province. He lived and wrote at Alexandria about the middle of the 2nd century of the Christian era. He was a Greco-Roman writer of Alexandria, known as a mathematician, astronomer, poet and geographer. Throughout his life he stayed at Alexandria, where he died in around 168 AD. Very little is known about Ptolemy's place of birth and early life and belief. Contribution in Mathematical Geography Ptolemy was one of those geniuses who developed sound principles of mathematical geography. His own contribution in the field of geography, especially in mathematical geography, is highly commendable and has been acknowledged throughout the ages. His concept of the universe coincided with that of Aristotle: the earth was a sphere that remained stationary in the centre while the celestial bodies revolved round it in circular orbits. Ptolemy’s Works and Treatises Ptolemy regarded the detailed topographical description of places and their history, which Ptolemy called chorography. Ptolemy was the author of several scientific treatises, three of which were of continuing importance to later Islamic and European science. These three treatises include (1) Syntaxis (Mathematical Treatise), (ii) the Geography, and (iii) Astrology. The Syntaxis: His best known work is The Syntaxis. The Syntaxis presents in detail the mathematical theory of the motion of the Sun, the Moon and planets. Ptolemy's geometric models, used only to predict the positions of these bodies, employed combinations of circles known as epicycles, with the framework of the basic earth-centred system (geocentric). He believed that the stars were fixed points in a rotating sphere. He stated that the planets are much closer to the earth than the stars, but are farther away than the moon. He devoted two parts of The Synatxis to a catalogue of stars. He described a mathematical arrangement of the stars and gave the celestial latitudes and longitudes, as well as magnitude (brightness) for each of them. This catalogue includes 1,022 stars grouped into 48 constellations. The Geography: His second most important work The Geography , also known as The Guide to Geography , opens with an excellent theory of map projection. The book is a catalogue of places with their latitudes and longitudes and describes briefly each continent, country and tribe. It also contains a map of the world including Europe, North Africa, and most of Asia as well as 26 maps of specific areas. The book The Guide to Geography consisted of a list of all known places tabulated according to latitudes and longitudes- the system - Ptolemy devised himself. He also opined: 'Geography is a science which deals with the art of map-making" This conception dominates the entire book of Ptolemy. The Guide to Geography consisted of eight volumes. He also promulgated the concept of Terra-Australis- Incognita declaring that the Indian Ocean is a closed sea. Ptolemy’s Geographical Concepts and Models The major contribution of Ptolemy to the field of mathematical geography can be studied under the sub- headings: (i) circumference of the earth, (ii) dimensions of the habitable world, (iii) prime meridian, graticule and design of projection, and finally, (iv) the salient features of his map and geographical account of the major features of the different parts of the world.
He represented the equator and the latitudes by parallel curves, and the meridians at straight lines bisecting the equator at right angles which converge at a point (pole) situated beyond the limits of the map (habitable world). Subsequently, he reduced the meridians also to a curved form so as to make them correspond more nearly with the reality. The map on which his network of latitudes and longitudes was drawn was not a perfect hemisphere. The climata (climatic zones) of Ptolemy also marked on his map. As stated at the outset, the main objective of Ptolemy was to elucidate his world map and to make mathematical geography perfect and complete. Ptolemy’s Description of Geographic Regions Western Europe: Ptolemy described the regions and nations of Western Europe at length. In his second book, he devoted two sections to the geography of the British Isles. The Roman armies, under the command of Caesar, achieved tremendous success in the British Isles, especially in England and Wales. The neighbouring island, Hibenia or Ivernia (Ireland), however, remained untouched by the Romans. Gaul & Iberia: So far as the geographical knowledge of Gaul (France) and Iberia (Spain) is concerned, these parts were well known to the Romans. In fact, they constructed many roads through these countries to improve accessibility and to provide easy means of transport and communications with North-West Europe and the British Isles. Caspian Sea: He was more accurate about Caspian, showing it as an inland sea. Ptolemy's knowledge of the coastal region, mountains and islands of the Caspian Sea was adequately reliable.
Italy & Greece: Nevertheless, he made mistakes in the plotting of Italy, Gulf of Genova and the Sea of Adrias (Adriatic). His map of Greece was, however, far superior in comparison to his predecessors. Central Asia & China: Ptolemy described the geography of Central Asia on either side of the Altai Mountains. He possessed some definite information concerning the country that adjoined Scythia on the east (known to the Greeks as Sericasi) or the land of Seres (China). Sera, the easternmost point of the habitable world was considered to be the great trading centre famous for silk and silk products. India & Southeast Asia: It was Ptolemy who plotted the Gangetic Gulf (Bay of Bengal) for the first time. He showed the source of the Ganges and its main tributaries in the Himalayas. The general direction of the western coast of India from north to south was correctly conceived and Ceylon was placed opposite to the western coast. His information about the trans-Gangetic region (India-Trans-Gangem) was vague and obscure.
Ancient Indian contribution to geography came through various fields of learning as Philosophy, Cosmology, Mathematics, Astrology and Astronomy, Physics, Chemistry and Metallurgy, Science and Technology, Medicine and Linguistics. In fact, the Indian scholars contributed significantly in the growth and development of geography and its allied sciences. Although, the classical Indian scholars have richly contributed to the various fields of geographical study as physical geography, regional geography, climatology, mathematical and practical geography. Their knowledge, particularly in astronomy (Khagol Shashtra), was fascinating. The ancient Indian scholars dealt with many problems pertaining to Cosmology (the science of Universe), Cosmogony (the origin of Universe) and Cosmography (the description of Universe). In the Padma Puranas a difference has been made between Bhogol (Geography, Khogol (The Science of Space) and Jyotishakra (Astrology).
Indian
Varahamihira (505-587 AD) Varahamihira was an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer who lived in Ujjain. He is considered to be one of the nine jewels (Navaratnas) of the court of legendary ruler Yashodharman of Malwa. He contributed significantly in the field of astronomy and mathematical geography. He also described the causes of solar and lunar eclipses and their impact on human society. Brahmagupta (597-668 AD) Brahmaguita was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He wrote two important works on mathematics and astronomy. Brahmagupta was the first to give rules to compute with zero. Bhaskara (Bhaskaracharya) (1114-1185 AD) Bhaskaracharya was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was born near Bijapur, Karnataka. Bhaskara is said to have been the Head of an astronomical observatory at Ujjain, the leading mathematical centre of medieval India. His main work Siddhanta Shiromani, consists of four parts that deal with arithmetic, algebra, mathematics of the planets, and spheres respectively. He is particularly known for the discovery of the principles of differential calculus and its application to astronomical problems and computations. He was a pioneer in some of the principles of differential calculus. He was perhaps the first to conceive the differential coefficient and differential calculus. Aryabhata (476-550 AD) Aryabhata was a great mathematician, astronomer and geographer of the classical Indian period. His works include the Aryabhatiya (499 AD) when he was only 23 years old and the Arya Siddhanta. These works deal mainly with mathematics and astronomy. Aryabhatiya provides no information about his place of birth. His major work, Aryabhatiya is a mixture of mathematics and astronomy. The mathematical part of Aryabhatiya covers arithmetic, algebra, plane, trigonometry and spherical geometry. It also contains fractions, quadratic equations, sums of power series and table sines. He used letters of alphabet to denote numbers, expressing quantities. He believed that the planets’ orbits are elliptical rather than circular. He correctly insisted that the Earth rotates about its axis daily, and the apparent movement of the stars is a relative motion caused by the motion caused by the rotation of the earth. He described the geocentric model of the solar system, in which the Sun and Moon are each carried by epicycles. According to him the order of the planets in terms of distance from Earth is the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and the asterisms. Solar and lunar eclipses were scientifically explained by Aryabhata. He states that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight. The Universe and its Origin The universe and its origin remained a point of speculation among all the ancient civilizations of Egypt, Babylonia, China, Greece and Rome. The ancient Indian scholars of the Vedic and Puranic periods gave considerable thought to this matter.
The ancient Indian literature deals with many problems pertaining to cosmology and cosmography. The cosmology of the Vedas which has a strong bearing on the Puramic views may be summarized as (a) artistic origin of the universe, (b) mechanical origin, (c) instrumental origin, and (d) philosophical origin. Artistic Origin: The Rigveda mentions a number of gods who performed various functions during the process of creation. These gods were artists who contributed their skill to the construction and completion of the universe. They wove various materials into a pattern, and shaped the universe by blasting and smelting. Mechanical Origin: The views regarding the mechanical origin of the universe developed in the last phase of Rigveda period. It suggests the sacrifice (or disintegration) of the primeval body who is conceived as soul and the nucleus of the universe and an embodiment of the supreme spirit. The sky, the wind, the moon, the sun, and all the terrestrial elements were the result of sacrifice ceremony. Instrumental Origin: The instrumental origin of universe is based on the occurrence of parent bodies from which the universe was created. Agni (Fire), Indra, Soma, Surya (Sun), Rudra and the other gods are mentioned as having been instrumental in the creation of the earth and the heaven- the twin parents of the whole universe. The union of the earth and the heaven results in the birth of the sun which is the most important agent in the creation of the world. Philosophical Origin: The philosophical theory of cosmogony has its origin in the song of creation which says that in the beginning there was neither being or not-being. There was no atmosphere, no sky, no days, and no nights. Unlike our modern scientists, the ancient Indian astronomers believed in a geocentric universe. In the Rigveda, we come across the description of 34 heavenly bodies including the sun, the moon, five grahas (planets) and 27 constellations. The five planets have been described as the five gods. The astronomers of the Puranic period established nine planets, namely, the Sun, the Moon, the Mars, the Mercury, the Jupiter, the Venus, the Saturn, the Rahu and the Ketu. Mercury has been taken to be of green colour, Venus of white colour, Mars of red colour, Jupiter of yellow colour and Saturn of black colour. Earth The concept of prithvi (earth) is the most basic concept in the study of geography. The word prithvi (earth) has been used profusely in the Vedas and the Puranas. The word Bhogal (geography) in the ancient Indian literature signifies the spherical shape of the earth. The spherical shape of the earth was visualized by Aitareya Brahmana, who stated that sun neither sets, nor rises. There is other evidence also like the shadow of the earth during lunar eclipse which is circular. From this it may be inferred that the earth is spherical in shape. Origin of Earth: As far as the origin of the earth is concerned, many of the facts as put forward by the ancient Indian scholars were more or less accurately known. They believed in the solidification of earth from gaseous matter. The earth’s crust, according to them, is made of hard rocks, clayey material and sandy material. The Puranas mention the earth to be apparently floating on the water like a sailing boat on the river. They were also aware of the fact that there is more land surface in the Northern Hemisphere. Size of Earth Earth is an oblate spheroid slightly flattened at the poles; its equatorial diameter measures 12,757 km, and its polar diameter 12,713 km. In the Vedic and Puranic literature, no definite information regarding earth's dimensions is available, but later literature of the 5th and 6th centuries AD on astronomy gives somewhat convincing information. Eclipses The ancient Indian scholars were also conscious of the causes of grahnas (eclipses). It was because of this knowledge that they advocated performing of some rituals and ceremonies on the days when eclipses occurred. The Aryans considered an eclipse inauspicious and a herald of disaster. It was also believed that if a solar and a lunar eclipse occurred in the same month, it becomes more disastrous. Varahamihira had considered the effects of eclipse month wise and emphasized the fact that eclipse in December leads to famine and its occurrence in April and May results in good rainfall, while an eclipse in March and June are inauspicious.
As far as the knowledge about the seasons ( ritus )is concerned, it is based largely on the studies in India. Rigveda mentions five seasons. In Valmiki Ramayan, however, six seasons have been identified, viz. Spring, Summer, Rainy, Autumn, Winter and severe Winter. Continents (Dwipas): In the ancient period, the knowledge about various parts of the world was limited. It was due to the poor means of communication and transportation. Even then, the attempts were made to divide the world into several regions on the basis of available information. Such descriptions exist in Puranas. Although incorrect, the term Dwipa has been used to designate various realms (continents) of the earth. Originally, a Dwipa signified a land bounded by water (ocean, sea, river, lake or by a combination of there water bodies). Accordingly, the known world during the Puranic period was divided into seven Dwipas or ‘regions’. These Puranic divisions exclude the American Continents, Greenland, England and Antarctica since they were discovered only during the Age of Discovery in the late medieval period. The regions seem to have derived their names from the existing popular trees or grasses here. These seven regions were:
- Jambu Dwipa The name Jambu Dwipa has been derived from the Jambu tree. In the opinion of some of the ancient Indian scholars, it embraces the whole of the Northern Hemisphere, lying to the north of Salt Sea. In relation to the present day context, Jambu covered present Central Asia from North to South including India or the region north of Salt Sea. Jambu Dwipa is surrounded by the Salt Ocean and lies in the heart of the concentric sequence of the dwipas. In general, the Jambu Dwipa is comparatively lower on the south and north flanks and highly elevated in the middle. The Meru lying in the heart of the Jambu Dwipa is considered to be heaven in the Pamir. The Sita river flows to the east of Meru (Pamir Knot). South of the Pamir is the Kishan Ganga, flowing from the Gangabal Lake and Harmukh Glacier. The other geographical features of the Jambu Dwipa include the Hindukush extending from the Pamir knot to Baba mountain in the west of Kabul. It is said to be a three-peaked mountain (Trisringa) which is visible from Peshawar (Pakistan).
- Kusa Dwipa Kusa Dwipa has derived its name from kusa grass or poa grass. Kusha dwipa extended over present Middle East and most of Africa. This dwipa stretches over Iran, Iraq and the fringing lands of the hot deserts, i.e. the south-west corner of the landmass round Meru which is left out in the regional pattern of Jambu Dwipa. This is a land of grasses and characterized by seasonal droughts. It contains seven major rivers and thousands of their branches that flow when god Indra pours down rain. In other words, these tributaries are seasonal in character. The mountains of Kusa Dwipa are covered with lurbs, trees and creepers, Its mountains and rocks are full of minerals and precious stones.
- Plaska Dwipa Plaska Dwipa has derived its name from Plaska tree, Wilford identified this tree with figure. One would, therefore, without hesitation, identify the Plaska dwipa with the basin and the surrounding lands of the Mediterranean Sea.
- Puskara Dwipa Puskara Dwipa is the land of horrors,
devoid of purity, cruel and leading to the destruction of the soul. It is the land of demon, full of awful hollows which are twenty in number," The name of this dwipa has been derived from the fact that it is surrounded by Puskara (lakes of lotuses). This dwipa is bounded by a huge circular chain of lakes. The people living in Puskara Dwipa are nomads, hunters and in general primitive and savage. One side of the dwipa is a dry desert and the other side is suitable for human occupation. It promises a paradise for those who approach the dwipa from one direction, while it presents the appearance of a wasteland if one enters it from the opposite direction. Puskara Dwipa is surrounded by an ocean of fresh water and surrounds the sea of milk. This region sprawls over the eastern and north-eastern Siberia (Russia). These countries contain numerous lakes, support nomadic people who live by hunting and are washed by Arctic waters and Bering Sea which have fresh water and low salinity.
- Salmali Dwipa Salmali Dwipa has derived its name from silk cotton tree. It consists of the tropical part of Africa bordering to the west of the Indian Ocean. It includes Madagascar, the Zenj of the Arab and Persian geographers. The main characteristic of this dwipa is salmali (silk cotton) tree. This tree is commonly found on the margins of equatorial regions of monsoon lands with moderate rainfall. It is a region of high cloudiness. Consequently, no star, planet or moon is visible. The people of this dwipa are essentially food gatherers and not food producers. The vegetation cover produces enough food to satisfy their needs.
- Kraunca Dwipa The Mahabharata locates Kraunca Dwipa in the north and west of Meru (Pamir). Most of present Europe was Kraunca dwipa. This dwipa is watered by thousands of streams in addition to the seven important rivers which carry great volume of water. The dwipa, therefore, is definitely a humid region with abundant rainfall. The entire North-West Europe, including British Isles, thus constitutes the parts of this dwipa.
- Saka Dwipa Saka Dwipa has been identified as a wide stretch of land to the south-east of the Jambu Dwipa, covering the present Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia and the islands of the South-East Asia (East Indies). This has hot and moist climate with thick cover of evergreen forests. Apart from the dwipas (continents), the classical Indian scholars also tried to delineate the boundaries and frontiers of the Indian sub-continent. In the Vedic and Puranic literature, India has been given different names but Bharatvarsa is the one most commonly used in them. Bharatvarsha The geographical knowledge of ancient period about Indian Sub-Continent is related to its identification, people and culture and relief and drainage. In Vedic and Puranic literature, the entire country from Himalayas to Kanyakumari has been referred to as “Bharatvarsha”. This name has both geographical and historical significance. Bharata is construed by many historians as having been an Indo-Aryan king; As king he unified the entire Indian subcontinent with the Dravidian peoples and other indigenous peoples as his subjects. Acc. to the Mahabharata, Bharata's empire covered the entire Indian subcontinent, Afghanistan and Persia. The Republic of India is also known as Bharat after Bharata. Although, this Bharatvarsha, in ancient times was subdivided into nine divisions ( nava khandas ). These divisions were separated by seas. Out of the nine divisions, eight have been shown as parts of Greater India while the ninth is surrounded by the sea. They are, e.g. Sapta Sindhu (Punjab Plains), Aryavarta (the Aryan domain) and the region of Indus valley or the Upper Gangetic Plains. Mountain and Rivers: The Vedas , Epics and Puranas make mention of a series of mountains in Bharatvarsha. They are, for instance, Himalayas (Himavat), existing like a bow in its northern part and divided into Antagiri (Inner Himalayas) and Bahyagiri (Outer Himalayas); Kailash Parbat, the abode of Apsaras (nymphs) and Devas
The understanding of the world's extent became vague, ignoring concepts like sphericity, distances, and latitudes. New theories were proposed based on incomplete scriptural texts, dismissing Greek and Roman scientific ideas as pseudo-scientific. The map-makers of the Dark Age focused more on artistic and symbolic expression rather than accurate representation. Maps were frequently distorted, and the typical world map of the time remained a disk, known as the "T-in-O" or the "wheel" map. Overall, the Dark Age was characterized by limited discoveries, a shrinking empire, restricted trade, and a lack of industrial research and the spirit of discovery. Most books produced during this period were compilations from older works. The Dark has been divided into two divisions: Early Medieval Period: During the Early Medieval period, which roughly spanned from the 5th to the 10th century AD, the geographical knowledge and exploration in Europe experienced a decline compared to the preceding Greco-Roman era. The fall of the Western Roman Empire resulted in a fragmented political landscape. Various Germanic tribes established their kingdoms, leading to a decentralization of power and a lack of centralized efforts in geographical exploration and mapping. The knowledge of geography during this time relied heavily on earlier works, such as the writings of Ptolemy, Pomponius Mela, etc which were copied and preserved by monks and scholars. The limited geographical information available in this period was primarily derived from accounts of missionary travels, pilgrimages, and religious texts, as the Christian Church played a central role in society and education. Monasteries became centers of learning and preserved ancient geographic works. Monks engaged in copying and translating classical texts, contributing to the preservation of geographical knowledge. Due to limited travel and exploration, there was little expansion of geographical understanding beyond existing knowledge inherited from the Roman period. Late Medieval Period: The Late Medieval period, also known as the High Middle Ages, covered the 11th to the 15th century AD. It witnessed some revival in geographical knowledge and exploration. The Crusades, military campaigns sanctioned by the Church to regain control of the Holy Land, led to increased contact and exchange between Europe and the Middle East. European knights, soldiers, and merchants travelled to the Levant, bringing back new geographic information. The travels of Marco Polo, an Italian merchant, during the late 13th century provided valuable firsthand accounts of his extensive journeys across Asia, expanding European knowledge of distant lands.The development of trade routes, such as the Silk Road and the maritime routes to Asia, facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and geographical information. European explorers, like the Portuguese during the 15th century, ventured further into the Atlantic and along the African coast, gradually expanding their understanding of the world. Advances in cartography during the Late Medieval period included the introduction of more accurate navigational instruments, improvements in mapmaking techniques, and the creation of more detailed maps. The spread of universities across Europe led to the establishment of geography as an academic discipline, with scholars beginning to question and critically analyze existing geographical knowledge.
Despite these advancements, it is important to note that the geographical understanding during the Late Medieval period still contained inaccuracies and misconceptions, such as the belief in mythical lands or the persistence of medieval cosmological models.
1.4 Arab Geographers During the medieval period many changes took place all over the world. The political map was altered with the decline of old kingdoms and empires and the rise of the new ones. However, more important changes were the changes in social and economic life. These changes were very marked in Western Europe. The development may be studied under sub-phases: Dark Age (500-100 A.D); Rise of Arab School of Thought (800-1400 A.D.); and Age of Discovery (1400-1750). The Arab civilization became the most advanced during medieval period. In the early years of the 7th century, Prophet Mohammad founded Islam. This now religion, within a very short period of time, not only united the warring tribes but also led to the establishment of a big empire and the building of a civilization, which in many respects was the finest civilization of the time. The followers of Prophet Mohammad, from 8th to 13th century, made significant contribution to the field of geography. They embarked on a conquest of the world outside of Arabia. In 641 AD, they conquered Persia, and in 642 AD, took control of Egypt. They swept westward across the Sahara and by 732 AD all the Great Desert was under their control. They crossed through the Iberian Peninsula in France. For some 900 years, the Muslims ruled most of Spain and Portugal. The Muslim rule was also extended to Central Asia, Northern China India, eastern coast of Africa, Malaysia and some islands of the Arabian Sea and South-East Asia. With the patronage of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid, an academy called 'Baitul-Hikma' was established. In this academy, scholars from all over the world were invited to teach and assist the Arab academics and to help them in the translation of the Greek, Latin, Persian and Sanskrit works into Arabic. The main factors responsible for the growth and development of geographical knowledge in Arab world may summarize as under: Ibn-Hawqal-Abu-al-Mohammad Qasim (912-978 AD) Biography Early Life and Interests: Ibn-Hawqal was a resident of Baghdad. He was probably born upper Mesopotamia (at Jezera). His real name was Mohammad Abdul-Qasim. From his childhood, he was interested in books of voyages, explorations, travelogues etc, and the modes of life of distant tribes and nations. Travels and Exploration: He started his travels in May 943 AD and visited on foot different countries of the world, within the orbit of the authority of Holy Quran. The countries and regions visited by him include North Africa, southern edge of Sahara, Egypt, Syria, Armenia, Azarbaijan, al-Jazira, Iraq, Khuzistan, Fars (Iran), Khawarizm and Transoxania and finally Sicily after which we lose trace of him. Treatise of Ibn-Hawqal The treatise of Ibn-Hawqal is entitled “A Book of Routes and Realms”. In the preface to his book, Ibn-Hawqal remarks: “I have described the earth in length and breadth and I have written about the Muslim countries. I have indicated the limits of each region, the cities and the districts included therein, the rivers which irrigate it, the bodies of water which modify the surface, the resources which are available, the various kinds of taxes which are imposed there, the routes which traverse it, the distances which separate it from the adjacent countries, the types of commerce which is successfully carried on there; and I have reassembled all the information which has made geography an interesting science for princes and persons of all classes”. Ibn-Hawqal’s Account of Europe Besides the Arab world, Ibn-Hawqal has given an account of the European countries and established that the Caspian Sea did not have any connection with the Northern Ocean. The Black Sea communicated with the Northern Sea by a channel which may be an arm of the sea. According to him, Europe was an island. Insights into Africa and Eastern Region About Africa, he wrote that its eastern coast adjoining the Red Sea turns to the east. He also described countries and peoples bordering the Islamic world. His description about the Turks, the Khazars, the towns of Southern Italy, the Sudanese and the Nibians are highly reliable.
About oceans, he showed acquaintance with the different problems and theories current in his time, relating to shapes and limit of different seas. Regarding the Indian Ocean, he had a better idea than Ptolemy as Al-Masudi held that the Indian Ocean is connected with the Atlantic Ocean. He opined that salt in the seas and oceans comes from the land Al-Masudi tried to solve the problem concerning the exact source of the Nile River. He rejected the idea of Ptolemy that the Indus was connected with the Nile River. Al-Masudi was one of the well-known climatologists of his time. He gave good account of the periodic winds (monsoons) of the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Views on Human Geography In the field of human geography, Al-Masudi tried to correlate man with environment. While describing the effect of environment on the mode of life and attitudes of people, Al-Masudi says: "The powers of the earth vary in their influence on man on account of three causes, viz., water, natural vegetation and topography'. While dilating upon the character of the nomads of Arabia, Al-Masudi has observed that it is desirable for affluent people to go round the world. The nomads pondered over the problem of making their houses in cities. They are distinguished in acts of charity and possess intelligence of a high order, for these qualities are generated by a pure and clean environment He vividly examined the impact of environment on the physical and intellectual properties of man and cited the example of the Turks. In his opinion, the Turks who emigrated to India lost their national characteristics and acquired new characteristics suited to the new environment. Further evidence of his conception of adaptation to environment is found in his observations of animals and plants, who adopt the natural colour of the physical environment in which they dwell or grow. Regional Geography Descriptions Al-Masudi contributed appreciably to the field of regional geography also. He gave a fairly reliable account of Syria, Persia, Central Asia, Georgia, Mesopotamia and the countries he travelled. About Syria, Al-Masudi writes that this country is hilly and the abode of clouds, winds, mists, fog, and heavy rains, where trees are numerous and rivers are perennial. On the basis of language, he divided the habitable world into seven nationalities: (i) Persians, (ii) Chaldaeans (Arabs), (iii) Greeks, (iv) Egyptians and Libyans, (v) Turks, (vi) Hindus, and (vii) Chinese In brief, Al-Masudi was such a geographer who examined the real document of geography, i.e., earth and compared the knowledge he acquired from books with the actual conditions on the ground. Al-Biruni (973-1039 AD) Biography & Achievements Al-Buruni's full name was Abu-Rayhan Mohammad Ibn Ahmad. He was born in the present day Republic of Uzbekistan; he was Tezik by race and a Persian by culture. Al-Biruni, through his dedication and vast knowledge, achieved great scholarship in philosophy, religion, linguistics, mathematics, physics, astronomy, chronology, medicine, and various languages and literatures. He studied the Greek work through Arabic Translations and also well-versed in Persian, Turkish, Syriac and Sanskrit. He is given the titles 'founder of Indology' and the 'first anthropologist. He was also given the title Al-Ustadh (The Master) for his remarkable description of the 11th century India. He studied the Greek books through Arabic translation. He was versed in Persian, Turkish, Syriac and Sanskrit. He was familiar with the Roman language. He had friendly contacts with Syriac and Christian intellectuals. He was acquainted with the Arabic translation of Indian works. Subsequently, when political developments brought him into contact with the Hindus of the subcontinent, he made full use of this opportunity. He distinguishes between the beliefs of the educated Hindus and the common people. He was a witness to the Muslim conquest of the city of Nagarkot situated at the foot of the Himalayas. This city was famous for an ancient Hindu (idol) temple. Probably, he accompanied the soldiers of Mahmud, up to Mathura and Kanauj on the banks of the Jamuna (Yamuna) and the Ganga, respectively. He died at Ghazna in the year 430 A.H. (1039 AD). The writer, Al-Biruni, has written a number of books and has dwelt upon a great variety of subjects.
Among the main works of Al-Biruni include Kitab-al Hind, Al-Qanun-al Masudi (The Canon of King Masud), Vestige of the Past Athar-al-Bagija, Tarikhul-Hind, Kitab-al-Jamakir, and Kitab al-Saydna. He translated from Sanskrit into Arabic the original title of Patanjali which contains valuable information on India and China. He wrote 27 books on geography, four each on cartography, geodesy, and climatology, and seven books on comets, meteors and surveying. Al-Biruni's academic interests and activities encompassed a wide variety of subjects, ranging from abstract theories of philosophy to the practical sciences of mathematics, geography, geology, physics, astronomy and medicine. Astronomy and Astronomical Observations It is clear from his work that he made astronomical observations in the cities of Ghazna, Kabul, Lamghan, Peshawar, and Multan. His main field of study, however, was astronomy. He devised his own method of determining the radius of the earth by means of the observation of the height of mountain. In much the same way, there were people who ignored geography as something without any utility, though the Holy Quran is full of episodes of travels and adventures, e.g. Prophet Abraham's journey from Ur, Moses' journey from Egypt and the hijrah of the Prophet of Islam (peace be on him). After analysing these unscientific tendencies, Al-Biruni produced convincing arguments for establishing the claims of physical sciences. He provided illustrations of the daily use of mathematical and astronomical knowledge. This knowledge helped in ascertaining the influences of the sun and the moon in the form of what we know as the seasons and tides. About the moon, he asserted that it does not move in a perfect circle. Its maximum and minimum distances differ appreciably. It changes its path and is variable. He discussed the lunar month on a synodic basis, i.e. by referring to its position, and return to it, in relation to the sun. Al-Biruni measured the longest and the shortest distance of the moon and the earth. He was not sure of the diameter of the moon. About the stars, he was of the view that it was practically impossible to determine the number of heavenly bodies (stars) even in a small portion of the sky. He was also aware of the limitations of the instruments of his age. Al-Biruni adopted the Greek nomenclature of 48 figures and 12 constellations arranged on a belt. He rejected Aristotle's contention that the 'Milky Way' was under the sphere of planets and correctly estimated it to belong to the highest sphere of the stars. He believed that as there was no way to find out the parallel of the fixed stars it was impossible to determine their distance and magnitude. Mars was accepted as one and a half times the sun's diameter. Al-Biruni used Indian figures about the distance and magnitude of the stars. Regarding the planets, Al-Biruni followed Ptolemy taking his works to be the most authentic and correct. From the earth towards the stars, the planets were arranged by him in the following ascending order: Moon, Mercury. Venus, Sun, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn. Al-Biruni dedicated himself only to astronomy, yet he excelled in mathematics also. In that age, mathematics consisted of arithmetic, geometry, physics and music. He was also interested in physics, though he had no interest in music. In his book, Kitabal Hind, he discussed Indian beliefs, Hindu literature, grammar, metre, chess, etc. but totally ignored Indian music Understanding of the World and Seas Al-Biruni had special interest in geomorphology and paleontology. He compared the different fossils discovered in the plains of Arabia, Jurjan and Khwarizm along the Caspian Sea. According to him, the Indo-Gangetic plain was formed by the silt brought by the rivers. He correctly estimated the known habitable world as greater in length, i.e. from China in the east to Morocco and Spain in the west. The seas limited the inhabitable world. The known world was divided into age-old, seven-fold divisions of seven aqalim. Al-Biruni also had an accurate idea of the different bays, gulfs and smaller seas. He referred to the Ice Sea in the north-east of Europe and in the west of Tangier and Spain. He
