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SEMESTER-I
HISDSC101T
HISTORY OF INDIA FROM EARLIEST TIMES
UP TO 300 BCE
Contact Hours: 45
Full Marks = 100 [ESE (70) CCA (30)]
Course objective:
Students will acquire knowledge about the historiographical trends, interpretation of the historical
sources of ancient India. They can acquire knowledge about the Vedic Period and the rise of Jainism and
Buddhism. The paper will help the students in understanding the history of our ancestors along with the
cultural transitions that happened in due course of time.
Unit 1: Sources
- Explain the literary and Archaeological sources of Ancient Indian history.
Ans: Ancient Indian history is reconstructed through a diverse array of sources that offer insights into its complex past. These sources include ancient texts, such as the Vedas, Upanishads, and epics like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, which provide valuable information about religious beliefs, social structures, and historical events. Inscriptions and coins from various dynasties, including the Mauryas and Guptas, serve as crucial evidence of political and economic conditions. Archaeological findings, such as the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization and artifacts from Buddhist and Jain sites, offer tangible evidence of ancient life and culture. Additionally, foreign accounts from historians like Megasthenes and Fa-Hien contribute perspectives on India’s interactions with the broader world. Together, these sources help to piece together the rich tapestry of India's ancient history.
- Literary sources:
Ancient Indian literature has been a pinnacle of Indian civilization, showcasing the vast array of talent and expertise displayed by the masters themselves.
evolving through three Sangams (assemblies of poets and writers), with prevalent themes including war, love, and politics.
Vedic Literature:
The Vedic period (c. 1500–c. 500 BCE) in India marks the transition from the Indus Valley Civilization to the emergence of a second urbanization in the central Indo- Gangetic Plain around 600 BCE. During this time, Vedic literature, including the Vedas (1300–900 BCE), was composed in Vedic Sanskrit. The Vedas, which are vast collections of religious texts and the earliest scriptures of Hinduism and Sanskrit literature, were traditionally transmitted orally and are thus called Shruti, meaning 'that which is heard.' The Vedic corpus comprises four Vedas: Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda, each containing mantra texts known as Samhitas. Vedic literature is categorized into Shruti Literature, which includes the Vedas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads, and is considered eternal and authoritative, and Smriti Literature, which translates to 'that which is remembered,' encompassing evolving texts such as the Vedanga, Shad
Darshana, Puranas, Itihasa, Upveda, Tantras, and Agamas.
Great Epics Ramayana and Mahabharata:
The Ramayana and Mahabharata are two monumental epics of ancient Indian literature that embody the ethnic memory of the Indian people, having evolved over millennia through oral transmission by singers and storytellers before being written down around the 2nd century BCE. The Ramayana, attributed to Maharishi Valmiki, consists of 24,000 verses divided into seven Khandas and is presented in poetic form to entertain and educate, illustrating how to achieve the fourfold goals of human existence—Dharma, Artha, Kama, and Moksha. The Mahabharata, composed by Vyasa, is the world's longest poem with approximately 100,000 lines spread over 10 books, known as Itihasa Purana or Mythical History, depicting the eternal struggle for the throne between the Pandavas and the Kauravas. It intertwines numerous episodes within its narrative and includes the Bhagavad Gita, which provides a profound perspective on Dharma and Nishkama Karma, emphasizing the performance of righteous duty in a selfless manner.
organizations; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka, a philosophical and systematic analysis of monastic teachings. By around 25 BCE, these teachings were recorded in Pali, the language of the oldest Buddhist texts. Key Buddhist scriptures include the Divyavadana, Dipavamsa, Mahavamsa, and Milindapanho, the latter being a collection of dialogues between the Buddhist monk Nagasena and the Indo-Greek ruler Menander. The Jatakas, a collection of stories depicting the Buddha's previous lives, are notable for their influence on Buddhist art. Additionally, the Buddhacharita, a Sanskrit text on the Buddha's life by Ashvaghosha, contributes to early Buddhist literature.
Important Sanskrit Literary Works of Ancient India:
"Mudrarakshasa," a 6th-century CE political thriller by Visakhadatta, is set during a crucial period in Indian history and revolves around Chanakya's efforts to persuade Rakshasa to align with Chandragupta, ensuring he has a capable minister. The play's title refers to Rakshasa's signet ring, which was seized by a Chanakya spy. The "Arthashastra," authored by
Kautilya (Chanakya), is an ancient Sanskrit text on statecraft, economics, military strategy, and social organization, crafted between the 2nd century BCE and 3rd century CE. Kalidasa's "Malavikagnimitram," his first play written in the 5th century CE, depicts the love of Agnimitra, the Shunga Emperor, for a chief queen's handmaiden, set during Pushyamitra Shunga's reign. Kalidasa’s "Vikramorvasiyam," also from the 5th century CE, tells the story of a mortal's love for a celestial maiden, highlighted by a poignant scene where the monarch addresses flowers and trees as if they were his beloved. In "Raghuvamsa," Kalidasa presents the lineage of Lord Rama’s forefathers and successors, focusing on the valor of the great warrior Raghu and other illustrious kings. "Mricchakatika," a 5th- century CE play by Sudraka, is set in ancient Ujjayanai and narrates the love story of Charudatta, a noble but poor Brahmin, and Vasantasena, a wealthy courtesan, diverging from traditional legends. Bharavi's "Kiratarjuniya," a 6th-century epic poem, is celebrated for its powerful Sanskrit verse and describes the conflict between Arjuna and Lord Shiva in the guise of a hunter. Magha's "Shishupala Vadha," written in the
Tamil grammar and poetics, and other texts like the Ettuthokai and Pattuppāṭṭu collections are critical for understanding the structure, themes, and social contexts of Sangam literature. These sources, preserved through oral transmission and later manuscripts, highlight the sophistication of early Tamil culture, with their references to chieftains, merchant classes, and a rich pantheon of deities. The literature is not only a key to ancient Tamil culture but also serves as a window into the early history of South India, reflecting its social, political, and cultural dynamics.
- Archaeological sources:
**Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–
BCE)**
The Indus Valley Civilization, one of the world’s earliest urban civilizations, flourished in the northwestern regions of South Asia, primarily in present-day Pakistan and northwest India. Mohenjo- Daro, located in Sindh, Pakistan, was one of its major cities, thriving from around 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Mohenjo-Daro is noted for its sophisticated urban planning,
which includes a grid layout of streets, advanced drainage systems, and standardized brick construction. Key features of Mohenjo-Daro include the Great Bath—a large public bathing area—and the Granary, which suggests the city’s role as a major trade center. Similarly, Harappa, in Punjab, Pakistan, was another principal city of the civilization, existing from approximately 2600 BCE to 1900 BCE. Harappa exhibits many parallels to Mohenjo-Daro, indicating a high level of standardization and extensive trade networks. Key structures at Harappa include the Citadel, which was a raised platform possibly used for administrative or religious purposes, and various residential and granary buildings that reflect the city’s organizational and economic complexity.
Vedic Period (c. 1500–500 BCE)
The Vedic Period is characterized by the composition of the Vedas and the gradual transition from the Indus Valley Civilization to the rise of the Janapadas, or early states. During this period, the Ashoka Pillars,
which originally housed relics of the Buddha, is surrounded by a torana (gateway) featuring intricate carvings that depict scenes from the life of the Buddha and various Jataka tales. The stupa’s construction reflects Ashoka’s efforts to promote Buddhism and establish a religious and cultural legacy. Another important site from this period is Nalanda University in Bihar, India. Established around the 5th century CE, Nalanda was a renowned center of learning and Buddhist scholarship until its decline in the 12th century CE. The site includes ruins of monasteries, temples, and lecture halls, indicating its role as a major intellectual hub that attracted scholars from across Asia.
Gupta Empire (c. 320–550 CE)
The Gupta Empire is often referred to as a golden age of Indian culture, known for its advancements in art, science, and architecture. The Ajanta Caves, located in Maharashtra, India, are a prime example of Gupta-era artistic achievement. These rock-cut Buddhist caves, created between
the 2nd century BCE and 600 CE, are renowned for their elaborate frescoes and sculptures. The most significant phase of the caves’ development occurred between 400 CE and 650 CE, during which the murals depicting the life of the Buddha and Jataka tales were created. The Ellora Caves, also in Maharashtra, showcase the religious diversity of the period with Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain rock-cut temples. The Kailasa Temple, carved from a single rock, stands out as an architectural marvel. The caves were created between the 5th and 10th centuries CE, reflecting the Gupta Empire’s rich cultural and religious life.
Medieval Period (c. 500–1526 CE)
The Medieval Period in India saw the rise of various empires and dynasties, each contributing to the architectural heritage of the subcontinent. The Qutub Minar, built by Qutb-ud-din Aibak in 1193 CE in Delhi, is a notable example of early Islamic architecture in India. The minaret, which stands at 73 meters, is adorned with inscriptions in Arabic and intricate carvings
The Rock Edicts of Ashoka are among the most significant archaeological sources from Ancient India, providing deep insights into the reign and policies of Emperor Ashoka of the Maurya Dynasty. Ashoka, who ruled from 268 to 232 BCE, is renowned for his embrace of Buddhism and his efforts to propagate its principles across his vast empire. These edicts, carved on rocks and pillars throughout the Indian subcontinent, were inscribed between 250 and 232 BCE. They reflect Ashoka's commitment to dharma (moral law) and his efforts to improve governance and promote social welfare.
The Edicts at Lumbini (c. 249 BCE)
One of the earliest and most significant of Ashoka’s edicts is found at Lumbini, in present-day Nepal, where Ashoka’s 20th Rock Edict is inscribed. Lumbini is traditionally recognized as the birthplace of the Buddha. This edict, dated to around 249 BCE, marks Ashoka's pilgrimage to the site and his dedication to enhancing the sacred space. It underscores his intention to honor
Buddha's birthplace by marking it with a commemorative pillar and promoting the site as a center for pilgrimage.
**The Edicts at Sarnath (c. 249–
BCE)**
The Sarnath Edicts, located in the vicinity of Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, India, are another crucial source. These edicts, inscribed on the famous Lion Capital of Ashoka, date to around 249–232 BCE. Sarnath is where Buddha delivered his first sermon after attaining enlightenment. The edicts here emphasize Ashoka’s conversion to Buddhism and his commitment to spreading its teachings. They highlight his policies on social justice, moral conduct, and his support for the Buddhist Sangha (monastic community).
The Edicts at Kausambi (c. 250 BCE)
The Kausambi Edicts, found near modern-day Kausambi in Uttar Pradesh, India, are part of a series of inscriptions
**The Edicts at Girnar (c. 250–
BCE)**
The Girnar Edicts, located near Junagadh in Gujarat, India, are another important set of inscriptions from Ashoka’s reign. Dating from approximately 250– BCE, these edicts are carved into rock faces and include some of Ashoka’s most detailed proclamations. They discuss his efforts to improve the administration of justice, promote moral values, and support various religious sects, including Buddhism. The Girnar Edicts also provide insights into Ashoka’s interactions with the local population and his administrative policies.
**The Edicts at Junagadh (c. 150–
BCE)**
In addition to Ashoka's edicts, the Junagadh Edicts represent a later phase, dating from around 150–50 BCE, during the reign of the Western Kshatrapas. These inscriptions are significant for providing a historical context of the region post-Ashoka.
They reflect the continued influence of Ashoka’s edicts and offer insights into the administrative and cultural changes during this later period.
The Edicts at Topra (c. 250 BCE)
The Topra Edict, located in Topra in Haryana, India, is another key Ashokan inscription, dating to around 250 BCE. This edict, carved on a large pillar, is notable for its detailed script and provides insights into Ashoka’s policies regarding the administration of justice and the promotion of Buddhist values. The edict also highlights Ashoka’s efforts to standardize legal practices and promote ethical conduct across his empire.
**The Edicts at Lauriya Nandangarh (c.
250 BCE)**
The Lauriya Nandangarh Edicts, found in Bihar, India, are among the earlier rock edicts of Ashoka, dating to around 250 BCE. These inscriptions are part of a series of
