Forensic evidence and research about physical evidence in forensic | Study notes Forensics

TOPIC : Establishment of identity of individual

Sub: Forensic science

Sem: 10

Div.: A

Name: Fiza Bangali: 07

Mansi Dave: 14

Sangeeta Meena: 29

Nehal Sathvara: 45

Partial preview of the text

Download Forensic evidence and research about physical evidence in forensic and more Study notes Forensics in PDF only on Docsity!

TOPIC : Establishment of identity of individual

Sub: Forensic science

Sem: 10

Div.: A

Name: Fiza Bangali: 07

Mansi Dave: 14

Sangeeta Meena: 29

Nehal Sathvara: 45

INDEX

NO. TOPIC Page no. 1 Foot print 03- 07 2 Blood Grouping 07 - 13 3 Skin and Hair

4 Physical Peculiarities

 Introduction of footprint

However, there is no such provision related to footprints in the Indian Evidence Act and no power has been granted to court at the trial stage. Section 73 of Indian Evidence Act only mentions fingerprints and not footprints. In the case of Abdul Razak Murtaza Dafadar v. State of Maharashtra, the court has observed that in construing words like arts or science, a static word cannot be tenable as expert testimony on the subject matter like that of footprints and marks are now admissible.Furthermore, in the case of Sunder and others v. State of Rajasthan, the court has looked into the evidence of footprints positively and identified their importance provided if all the required precautions are taken at the time when such evidences were collected, when molds were made and when they were analyzed.  Footprints and Right against Self Incrimination It is provided under section 51 of the Criminal Procedure Code that the police can search an arrested person and can keep all the articles except the necessary wearing apparel into safe custody which makes it clear that shoes of the accused can be taken into custody and there is no violation of Article 20(3) of Indian Constitution. Reinstating the same provision, the Supreme Court in the case of, State of Uttar Pradesh and Ors. v. Sunil and Ors. ruled that directing any person to give footprints is not against the right of self-incrimination. Impression evidence is used for the purpose of identification of a person and it would not amount to being a witness against oneself. And further, the court also added that a person not complying with the direction may give inference to the court that he is the accused.  Issue of Admissibility of the evidence Like other pieces of evidence in forensic science, footprints alone cannot prove that a suspect has committed a crime; it means that it is not conclusive evidence. It only provides a link to show the presence of suspect or the suspect has come in contact with the victim but they fail in providing under which circumstance and when the link was formulated. The legislative framework is equipped to take into account footprints under the domain of forensic evidence but the evidentiary value of the same is restricted as they are circumstantial and weak in nature. The evidence of footprints is not considered very reliable to conclusively prove the guilt of the person. In the case of State of Uttar Pradesh and Ors. v. Sunil and Ors., it has been stated that an accused cannot be convicted solely on the basis of footprints or his refusal to comply with the direction of submitting footprints. In the case of Mohm. Aman v. State of Rajasthan, it was held that science of identification of footprints is not a well-established principle or science. If in any case evidence is found to be satisfactory then it might be utilized to reinforce the conclusions which have already been arrived at on the basis of other evidences. At this juncture it is important to note that in the

case of Ram Singh and others v. State of Rajasthan and others, it has been ruled by the Court that evidentiary value of footprints are not well-established principle and in absence of other strong and reliable evidence that points towards the accused’s identification then footprint evidence cannot be used in order to conclusively prove any finding and the same position had been reiterated many times that the evidence of footprints are not a reliable source of evidence. Moreover, in the case of Sunder and others v. State of Rajasthan, the court held that it needs to be assured that the footprints collected are genuine and the whole procedure has been followed and no tampering has been done at any stage. Following it judges would also look up to other reliable evidence and circumstantial evidence and discern whether all such evidence points towards the guilt of the accused or a complete chain of evidence has been built up which gives some conclusive finding. Footprints evidence is used as circumstantial evidence and thus cannot alone determine the guilt of a person like fingerprints or DNA evidence. Footprints evidence are in most of the cases seen in the light of other evidences and their reliability are dependent on the direction in which it is pointing, meaning to say that if all the evidences are pointing towards a single person and footprint evidences also point toward the same person then such evidence would be accepted as reliable but if it proves contrary then it may be disregarded or same importance may not be attached to those evidences.  Critical Analysis of Footprint Evidences The aim of criminal law is to find out the actual criminal and prevent any erroneous convictions of innocent people. The Legal system generally relies on the evidence while supporting the case. Individualization forensic evidence aims to be scientific in nature both at the time of recovery and analysis. If forensic evidence is based upon reliable scientific methodology it paves the way for accuracy in the analysis of evidence or report finding. It is very important for any forensic evidence to rely on a scientific test which is objective in nature but footprint evidence lacks any scientific approach and thus it fails in meeting the demand of law. The footprint analysis involves a procedure where an object that is known like a shoe is compared with the partial or complete impression that was taken from the crime scene. Then the expert has to assess whether the impression found on the crime scene and known object has the same source or not. The whole procedure is done in a stepwise manner, first is the comparison of class characteristics and second is the identification of the characteristics. The whole procedure lacks the appropriate empirical studies for supporting the association of shoeprint with the known print done on the basis of identifying marks. It is very ambiguous to find out the accuracy of the examiner who identifies the features that are commonly present in both the impression and the shoe. It is difficult to find their range of error in distinguishing between the same features and assigning a probative value on such evidence is the toughest.

Eye tracker which is a scientific technology can be used to enhance footwear comparison. Eye tracker allows the examiner to track their own gaze while finding the similarities in question and known impression or evaluating the footprint evidence. A heat map is constructed through the process which allows the examiner to find out the areas of emphasis. Footprints as evidence can lead us in the journey of investigation. For it to be effective, it is very important that the most reliable method is used for the purposes of analysis and all the above mentioned issues and loopholes shall be resolved in order to give push to a scientific investigation and forensic science.  Blood grouping  The concept of Blood grouping was first discovered by Karl Landsteiner in 1901, who was an Austrian-American immunologist and pathologist. He received Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930 for this discovery.  His discovery helps us to determine blood groups and thus opened a way for blood transfusions that can be carried out safely.  There are present two types of Blood grouping as forward grouping and Reverse grouping.  The forward blood grouping is defined as using a known source of antibodies to detect the antigens on the red blood cells.  While Reverse grouping is defined as using the reagent cells with known ABO antigens and testing the patient’s serum for ABO group antibodies.  The ABO and Rh are the major, clinically significant, and the most important of all the blood group systems  The ABO blood groups are classified into four groups based on the presence or absence of two inherited antigenic substances on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs).  The four major ABO blood groups are “A” group, “B” group, “AB” group, “O” group.  Blood group A contains antigen-A and antibody-B, Blood group B contains B-antigen and antibody-A, Blood group AB contains antigen-A and antigen-B and no antibodies, and Blood group O has no antigen and contains antibodies anti-A and anti-B.  The Rhesus system (Rh) is the second most important blood group system in humans. The most significant and immunogenic Rhesus antigen is the RhD antigen.  The Rh factor is present on the surface of RBC in most people. It is a type of antigen and those who have it are called Rh+. Those who lack this antigen are called Rh-.  The Rh antibodies are absent in the blood of those persons who have Rh-. But they can produce Rh antibodies if they get blood from a Rh+ person, whose Rh antigens can induce the formation of Rh antibodies (as the immune system is triggered by the presence of an unknown antigen in the system).  The Rh+ person can receive blood from an Rh- person without any problem.  The Rh system consists of two allelic genes such as; Rh D and Rh CE

 The objective of Blood Grouping To determine the blood group and Rh factor of an individual  Blood Grouping Principle The ABO and Rh blood grouping system is based on agglutination reaction. When red blood cells carrying one or both the antigens are exposed to the corresponding anti bodies they interact with each other to form visible agglutination or clumping. The ABO blood group antigens are O-linked glycoproteins in which the terminal sugar residues exposed at the cell surface of the red blood cells determine whether the antigen is A or B. Blood group A individuals have A antigens on RBCs and anti-B antibodies in serum. Similarly, blood group B individuals have B antigens on RBCs and anti-A antibodies in serum. Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on RBCs and neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies in serum. Whereas, blood group O individuals have neither A antigens nor B antigens, but possess both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in serum. The Rh antigens are transmembrane proteins in which the loops exposed on the surface of red blood cells interact with the corresponding antibodies. Material Required  Anti A Sera  Anti B Sera  Anti RhD Sera  Cavity slide  Disposable Mixing Stick  Blood Lancet  70% Alcohol/ Spirit  Cotton ABO blood Grouping Procedure The Blood Grouping test can be done by two methods such as Slide or tile method and the Tube method. Slide or tile method

Dangle the hand down to increase the flow of blood in the fingers
Clean the fingertip to be pierced with spirit or 70% alcohol (usually ring or middle finger).

Mix them thoroughly on both slide.
Observe the agglutination on the slides. The Tube method
Take two tubes, one for the patient and one for the control.
Add one drop of Anti-Rh D in patient tube and one drop of albumin in control tube.
Add one drop of 2% – 5% patient’s RBC suspension on both slide.
Mix thoroughly and then centrifuge them.
Gently resuspend the sample.
Observe for the agglutination. Rh Blood Grouping Result Result for Slide Method  Positive Result: If the patient sample shows agglutination and the control shows suspension.  Negative Result: If both patient and control sample shows suspension. Result for Tube Method  Rh-D Positive: Agglutination in patient’s tube; and smooth suspension in control tube.  Rh-D Negative: Smooth suspension in both tubes. Interpretation  If agglutination is observed when blood is mixed with Anti A reagent, then the individual is said to have blood group “A”.  If agglutination is observed when blood is mixed with Anti B reagent, then the individual is said to have blood group “B”.  If agglutination is observed when blood is mixed with Anti A and Anti B reagent, then the individual is said to have blood group “AB”.  If no agglutination is observed when blood is mixed with Anti A and Anti B reagent, then the individual is said to have blood group “O”.

 If agglutination is observed when blood is mixed with Anti RhD reagent, then the individual is said to have “+ve” Rh factor.  If no agglutination is observed when blood is mixed with Anti RhD reagent, then the individual is said to have “-ve” Rh factor. Application of blood grouping  The blood grouping is used during the blood transfusion.  It also used for paternity disputes.  Used to detect hemolytic disease of newborn.  Susceptibility to various diseases Ex: O group- peptic ulcer.  Used for part of Health check-up and job, driving licensing, etc. Precautions  Read the entire procedure before preceding with the experiment.  During the experiment wear gloves.  Make sure the slide is clean and dry prior to use.  Avoid touching the antisera reagent dropper to the blood sample.  The result of the reaction should be interpreted immediately after mixing.  To prevent a false result avoid the intermixing of the antisera reagents while performing the experiment.  Classical Strategies in BG Typing In routine clinical analysis, there is a wide range of established procedures and practices for blood typing, where nearly all of them deal with the formation of agglutinates. Even though some of these classical methods are not highly sensitive, nonetheless, they still hold importance in ABO grouping tests. There is a wide range of blood typing techniques, which differ from each other in terms of sensitivity, reagents and equipment required, the time of operation and throughput analysis. Herein, we describe some general approaches of blood grouping along with their inbuilt advantages and drawbacks. 2.1. Slide Method The slide test is relatively the least sensitive method among others for BG determination, but due to its prompt results, it is very much valuable in emergency cases. In this method, a glass slide or white porcelain support is divided into three parts, as for each part, a drop of donor or recipient blood is mixed with anti-A, anti-B and anti-D separately. The agglutination or blood clumping pattern can be visually observed from which the ABO and rhesus D (RhD) type of

2.4. Column/Gel Centrifugation Column agglutination technology or gel centrifugation is a relatively modern approach that has gained substantial interest in ABO blood grouping, as it intends to establish a standard procedure for quantifying cell agglutination. Here, the column is made of small microtubes that contains gel matrix to trap agglutinates. Blood serum or cells are mixed with anti-A, anti- B and anti-D reagents in microtubes under controlled incubation and centrifugation. The gel particles trap the agglutinates, whereas non-agglutinated blood cells are allowed to pass through the column. The analysis time can be reduced by using glass beads in place of gel material, since in this way, faster centrifugation speeds can be achieved, which leads to rapid results. This technology is sensitive, straightforward and relatively easy to operate for less trained personnel. SKIN What changes are made in skin after death. skin is particularly important to determine the time of death, which can be estimated within the first 48 hours of death. Algor mortis, which refers to cooling of the body, is one of the earliest changes observed and is confirmed by checking the skin temperature of the body. It is used to accurately estimate the time of death. Following death, there are some dermatological findings that are normal and distinct from traumatic injuries:  Livor mortis (post-mortem hypostasis)  Cutis anserine (goosebumps)  Decomposition of the body Rigor mortis is stiffening of joints and muscles of a body a few hours after death and lasts from one to four days. Livor mortis Livor mortis refers to the staining of skin where blood has pooled in the vessels. Because blood remains as a fluid following death, the location of livor mortis can be a useful clue indicating if the body has been moved after death. The colour of livor mortis can also be useful. Carbon monoxide poisoning may be associated with pink livor mortis, while brown and dark bluish-grey livor mortis may indicate methaemaglobinaemia due to carbon monoxide poisoning. Six hours after death is the best moment to observe livor mortis^1 , and it is always absent in areas of mechanical compression on the body, such as at contact points in clothing. Cutis anserina Cutis anserina is caused by rigor of the pili erector muscles (attached to the body’s hair follicles) and is an early sign of rigor mortis. Decomposition of the body Decomposition of the body is a natural process that occurs due to postmortem increased bacterial activity and release of cellular enzymes. From 24 to 36 hours postmortem, green discolouration of the abdominal skin over the right caecum becomes evident due to accelerated decomposition of the intestines. The colour is the product of the metabolism of haemoglobin by bacteria from the intestine. ‘Marbling’ over the trunk and limbs is another feature of postmortem skin decomposition, caused by the spread of bacteria through the venous system.

From 60 to 72 hours postmortem, the body exhibits generalised swelling and bloating from increased gas production by bacteria. Blister formation, with skin and hair breakdown, occurs at 3 to 5 days. From 3 to 4 weeks, hair and nails detach from the body. Normal postmortem tissue changes noted on histopathology include focal dermal- epidermal separation (a split between the two layers of the skin), eccrine (sweat) duct necrosis and dermal degeneration within one week of death. patterns of injury seen in forensic dermatology Evaluating skin findings is a crucial step in identifying self-inflicted, accidental, or intentionally inflicted non-accidental injuries. The appearance of the wound can provide information on the shape of the penetrating weapon and the force exerted on the body. Cutaneous injuries are classified into three main categories:  Blunt – including abrasions, contusions and lacerations  Sharp – including incision, stabs, and chop injuries  Non-kinetic – chemical, thermal, or electrical injuries Specific dermatological patterns of injury include:  Cigarette burns: circular lesions with a central depression and rolled edges  Gunshot wounds  Bite marks: circular or semi-circular, with bruising around each tooth mark  Asphyxia (suffocation): facial swelling, cyanosis (blue discolouration), and conjunctival bleeding Analysis of hair and nail samples often also provides information concerning anything that the victim may have ingested or to which they had been exposed.  Hair can be examined for exposure to dye or bleach.  Hair and nails can be submitted for toxicology and drug screening.  The DNA of the perpetrator may be isolated from under the fingernails of the victim. patterns of injury may a dermatologist encounter A dermatologist may note skin findings suspicious of abuse during a consultation. These must be carefully documented, measured, and photographed. The distribution and shape (morphology) of the markings are particularly important. It is essential to distinguish dermatological disorders from true physical abuse. The classic sign of child abuse is loop marks – which result from an injury inflicted by ropes, cords, or belts. Sexual abuse can present with characteristic markings found on the victim or perpetrator, such as bruising, bite marks, fingerprint marks, abrasions from ligatures, and petechiae (tiny bruises) from asphyxia (suffocation). Normal examination findings do not rule out the possibility of abuse. Victims may present with nonspecific symptoms or sexually transmitted infections. Not all genital injuries are abuse-related. Skin conditions that may mimic sexual abuse include lichen sclerosus, allergic contact dermatitis, fixed drug eruptions, genital warts, nonsexual genital ulceration, and infection. Excessive bruising may be due to a bleeding disorder such as haemophilia. Saliva Saliva is another body fluid found at crime scenes (Virkler and Lednev, 2009). Saliva can be found on a variety of specimens left behind at the crime scene, including cigarettes, vaping

grouped into five clusters (east, west, south, north, and central) based on economic, food, and lifestyle factors and reported significant differences between Veillonella and Prevotella among the geographical regions ( p < 0.05). In addition to their abundance, the presence of V. parvula , R. aeria , and R. dentocariosa indicated potential deterioration in oral hygiene, which also relates to dental caries history. Accordingly, individuals residing in Yokohama may exhibit comparatively better dental hygiene than the other populations. Also, Prevotella was the most common and abundant bacterium in East Asia (South Korea, Japan, China, and Thailand). Leake et al. (2016) reported the preponderance of eight major genera in the saliva samples of Swiss population: Streptococcus , Neisseria , Prevotella , Haemophilus , Veillonella , Porphyromonas , Rothia , and Fusobacterium. However, despite the geographic proximity between Germany and Switzerland, no common genera except Fusobacterium were found (Li et al., 2014). In contrast, Italians carried common genera ( Neisseria and Prevotella ). Li et al. (2014) performed a comparative microbiome analysis of Alaskans, Germans, and Africans, including the Democratic Republic of Congo ( n = 15), Sierra Leone ( n = 13), and Uganda ( n = 38) and revealed more similarities between Alaskans and Germans than Africans at the genus and OTU levels (Li et al., 2014). Both native Alaskans and Germans shared 13 common genera, while Alaskans and Africans shared only six genera ( Neisseria , Campylobacter , Granulicatella , Megasphaera , Selenomonas , Actinomyces ) and Germans and Africans carried three common genera ( Actinobacillus , Aggregatibacter , and Capnocytophaga ). Also, all of the foregoing populations shared only three genera ( Streptococcus , Fusobacterium , and Leptotrichia ) in common. Nasidze et al. (2009a) reported considerable differences in the diversity of the saliva microbiome between African populations, which were attributed to subsistence and dietary patterns. A study involving Sierra Leone and Congo, which are geographically distant but have similar dietary patterns, showed a higher degree of similarity with each other than with Batwa (Nasidze et al., 2009a). Although no significant geographical signature of the salivary microbiome was detected in various populations, a frequency variation in the specific genera was found. For example, significant fluctuations in the frequency of Enterobacter were seen. Enterobacter constitutes approximately 28% of the sequences obtained from the Congo but not California, China, Germany, Poland, or Turkey. Furthermore, Serratia showed a relatively high frequency among Bolivians (Nasidze et al., 2009a). Murugesan et al. (2020) characterized the salivary microbiome of the Qatari population, which was associated with gender, aging, oral health,

smoking status, and coffee or tea consumption. They found that Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Proteobacteria are the common phyla, with Bacteroidetes being the predominant phylum, and at the genus level Prevotella , Porphyromonas , Streptococcus , and Veillonella (mean values of males and females, 54.3%, 8.1%, 6.6%, and 6.22%, respectively) were the most abundant in Qatari saliva samples. These results indicate that Qatar differed from countries where Firmicutes was the dominant phylum such as Bangladesh, UK, Japan, South Korea, and Brazil. Further sampling of various populations is required to demonstrate the unique geographic differences of each region. Vaginal Fluid Identification of vaginal fluid in sexual assault cases is desirable for some forensic investigations. In particular, mixed samples containing vaginal fluid mixed with semen may suggest vaginal intercourse in sexual assault cases (Akutsu et al., 2012). Bacterial markers have been suggested to play a role in vaginal fluid identification based on the presence of Lactobacillus (87.5%), Lachnospiraceae (2.3%), Prevotella (1.1%), Alcaligenaceae (1.0% ), Erysipelatoclostridium (0.9%), Corynebacterium (0.7%), Peptoniphilus (0.6%), Bifidobact erium (0.6%), Anaerococcus (0.5%), and Staphylococcus (0.5%) (Dobay et al., 2019). Also, Subdoligranulum (2.3%), Blautia (1.7%), Escherichia-Shigella (0.5%), Anaerostipes ( .4%), and Stenotrophomonas (0.3%) were found in the exposed vaginal fluid (Dobay et al., 2019 ). Lactobacilli play an important role in protecting the host from the urinary tract and genital infections and in maintaining the vaginal microbial balance; they occur predominantly in the vaginal microenvironment of healthy women (Boris et al., 1998; Mc and Rosenstein, 2000 ; Witkin et al., 2007). The abundance of Lactobacillus promotes acidic vaginal pH, which is the signature of Lactobacillus colonization, and is attributed primarily to the metabolism of glycogen to lactic acid (Mirmonsef et al., 2016; Das Purkayastha et al., 2019). However, vaginal pH and Lactobacillus diversity and dominance differ with individual lifestyles (Das Purkayastha et al., 2019). Recent studies and the human microbiome project reported nearly 60 vaginal microbiomes including four dominant species in the urinogenital tract: L. crispatus , L. iners , L. gasseri , and L. jensenii (Pavlova et al., 2002; Verhelst et al., 2004 ; Kroon et al., 2018). We analyzed seven vaginal fluid samples from four countries listed in FMD (Table 1 ) and 13 samples from 10 countries that are not included in the FMD (Table 2 ). Three body sites related to the vagina were listed in the FMD. Bacteria comprising less than 10% from vaginal

vaginalis. BVAB1, which was common in African American women, was only found in five of 416 European samples (Fettweis et al., 2014). Lactobacillus population in the healthy vaginas of Swedish women was studied by Vasquez et al. (Vasquez et al., 2002). The most predominant species were L. crispatus , L. iners , L. gasseri , and L. jensenii. Ugandans and South Africans showed similar trends in vaginal microbiome composition compared with Swedish (Jin et al., 2007; Pendharkar et al., 2013). Studies investigating vaginal Lactobacillus composition were carried out among various Asian populations. In a comparative study of Korean and Ugandan women, five common genera were isolated: Lactobacillus , Leuconostoc , Pediococcus , Streptococcus , and Weissella. L. fermentum was detected only in Korean women, and Pediococcus was more common in Korean women (Jin et al., 2007). Furthermore, in Korean women, the most abundant species was L. crispatus , followed by L. fermentum , L. jensenii , L. salivariusm , Pediococcus acidilactici , and Weissella kimchi. The combination of L. fermentum , P. acidilactici , and W. kimchi was characteristic of the Korean population (Jin et al., 2007). In another study, L. gasseri was the predominant microbe among Chinese women, and with a higher prevalence in fertile women than in postmenopausal women (Zhang et al., 2012). Among the Japanese communities with Lactobacillus prevalence, L. crispatus was the predominant species, followed by L. iners , similar to Caucasian and African Americans in North America (Zhou et al., 2010). In India, several studies reported a geographic variation in vaginal microbiomes (Garg et al., 2009; Pramanick et al., 2017; Das Purkayastha et al., 2019): L. jensenii in the southwest region; L. reuteri , L. fermentum , and L. salivarius in the central region; and L. crispatus , L. gasseri , and L. jensenii in south India. Interestingly, the rare vaginal microbes L. mucosae and Enterococcus faecalis was found to be prevalent in Northeast India (Das Purkayastha et al., 2019). Das Purkayastha et al. (2019) reported a distinct and diverse vaginal microenvironment in various groups, ethnicities, and regions. Stool The gut microbiota constitute the largest number of microbes compared with other body sites, and various microbiome studies have focused on the gut using the fecal samples (Lloyd-Price et al., 2016; Gupta et al., 2017). The composition and diversity of the gut microbiome are unique to individuals and are influenced by physical activity, diet, geographical environment, genetics, lifestyle, and ethnicity (Falony et al., 2016; Findley et al., 2016; Lynch and Pedersen, 2016; Zhernakova et al., 2016). Gut microbiota dysbiosis is attributed to metabolic

and inflammatory diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and cancer (Adlerberth and Wold, 2009 ; Armougom et al., 2009). The most predominant phyla in the human gut are Bacteroides and/or Firmicutes, constituting more than 80% of the total microbiome (Lay et al., 2005). Dietary changes alter the composition of Bacteroides and Firmicutes (Clarke et al., 2012; Scott et al., 2013). Stool samples including 99 samples from 25 countries listed in the FMD (Table 1 ) and 10 samples from each of the 10 countries not included in the FMD were analyzed (Table 2 ). We divided the stool microbiome data reported in the FMD studies into five groups to facilitate analysis based on region and abundance (Figure 4 ). Bifidobacterium species were predominant in East Asia (Japan, China, Taiwan, and Philippines), Prevotella in South Asia (India, Thailand, and Indonesia), and Bacteroides was the most prevalent in West Europe (Germany, Belgium, UK, Ireland, and Spain), North and South America (USA, Canada, Chile, and Argentina) and Australia. The microbiome composition was inconsistent across African countries including Gambia, Ghana, and Tanzania. In contrast, Koreans carried three phyla, which were predominantly found in stool microbiomes (Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria) and accounted for a mean value of 99% of sequences (Shin et al., 2016). Also, Shin et al. (2016) reported that Butyricimonas of the phylum Bacteroidetes was predominant in Seoul (mainland), while Catenibacterium from the Firmicutes phylum was dominant in Jeju (an island). In addition, Japanese, Korean, and Chinese communities carried an abundance of Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes, respectively (Nam et al., 2011). Japanese harbored predominantly Bifidobacterium and Clostridium , whereas Koreans carried Prevotella and Faecalibacterium , and Chinese had Bacteroides in their gastrointestinal microbiomes (Nam et al., 2011). Zhang et al. (2015) reported that Phascolarctobacterium of Firmicutes was the most abundant microbe in Chinese. In an Indian study, Tandon et al. (2018) analyzed urban cohorts derived from Western India and reported clear taxonomic differences in the microbiomes of American, Chinese, and Japanese populations. More than 80% of the sequences of gut microbiome derived from stool samples in the western Indian cohort belonged to five genera: Prevotella , Faecalibacterium , Alloprevotella , Roseburia , and Bacteroides (Tandon et al., 2018). These results were in line with FMD data which showed that Prevotella was the most predominant in the Indian urban population. A characteristic gut microbiome profile of the Himalayan population exhibited an increased abundance

Forensic evidence and research about physical evidence in forensic, Study notes of Forensics

Related documents

Partial preview of the text

Download Forensic evidence and research about physical evidence in forensic and more Study notes Forensics in PDF only on Docsity!

TOPIC : Establishment of identity of individual

Sub: Forensic science

Sem: 10

Div.: A

Name: Fiza Bangali: 07

Mansi Dave: 14

Sangeeta Meena: 29

Nehal Sathvara: 45

INDEX