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Fertilization- Effect of teratogens, Study notes of Developmental Psychology

Geetanjali UniversityDevelopmental Psychology

An overview of the three periods of prenatal development, including the germinal, embryonic, and fetal periods. It also discusses the effects of teratogens, such as caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, cocaine, methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin, on prenatal development. Additionally, it covers the risks associated with incompatible blood types and environmental hazards. The document emphasizes the importance of avoiding teratogens during pregnancy to ensure healthy fetal development.

Typology: Study notes

2021/2022

Available from 09/23/2022

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bhumika-prajapati 🇮🇳

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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
TOPIC: FERTILIZATION, EFFECT OF TERATOGENS
THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
• Typical prenatal development begins with fertilization and ends with birth, lasting between
266 and 280 days (from 38 to 40 weeks).
• It can be divided into three periods:
1. Germinal Period
• The germinal period is the period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two
weeks after conception.
• It includes the creation of the fertilized egg, called a zygote, cell division, and the attachment
of the zygote to the uterine wall.
• By approximately one week after conception, the differentiation of these cells—their
specialization for different tasks—has already begun.
• At this stage, the group of cells, now called the blastocyst, consists of an inner mass of cells
that will eventually develop into the embryo, and the trophoblast, an outer layer of cells that
later provides nutrition and support for the embryo. Implantation, the attachment of the
zygote to the uterine wall, takes place about 11 to 15 days after conception.
2. Embryonic Period
• The embryonic period is the period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight
weeks after conception.
• During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for
cells form, and organs appear. This period begins as the blastocyst attaches to the uterine
wall.
• The mass of cells is now called an embryo ,and three layers of cells form. The embryo’s
endoderm is the inner layer of cells, which will develop into the digestive and respiratory
systems.
• The mesoderm is the middle layer, which will become the circulatory system, bones,
muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system.
• The ectoderm is the outermost layer, which will become the nervous system and brain,
sensory receptors.
• The endoderm primarily produces internal body parts, the mesoderm primarily produces
parts that surround the internal areas, and the ectoderm primarily produces surface parts.
• As the embryo’s three layers form, life-support systems for the embryo develop rapidly.
• These life-support systems include the amnion, the umbilical cord and the placenta.
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DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

TOPIC: FERTILIZATION, EFFECT OF TERATOGENS

THE COURSE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

  • Typical prenatal development begins with fertilization and ends with birth, lasting between 266 and 280 days (from 38 to 40 weeks).
  • It can be divided into three periods:
  1. Germinal Period
  • The germinal period is the period of prenatal development that takes place in the first two weeks after conception.
  • It includes the creation of the fertilized egg, called a zygote, cell division, and the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall.
  • By approximately one week after conception, the differentiation of these cells—their specialization for different tasks—has already begun.
  • At this stage, the group of cells, now called the blastocyst, consists of an inner mass of cells that will eventually develop into the embryo, and the trophoblast, an outer layer of cells that later provides nutrition and support for the embryo. Implantation, the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall, takes place about 11 to 15 days after conception.
  1. Embryonic Period
  • The embryonic period is the period of prenatal development that occurs from two to eight weeks after conception.
  • During the embryonic period, the rate of cell differentiation intensifies, support systems for cells form, and organs appear. This period begins as the blastocyst attaches to the uterine wall.
  • The mass of cells is now called an embryo ,and three layers of cells form. The embryo’s endoderm is the inner layer of cells, which will develop into the digestive and respiratory systems.
  • The mesoderm is the middle layer, which will become the circulatory system, bones, muscles, excretory system, and reproductive system.
  • The ectoderm is the outermost layer, which will become the nervous system and brain, sensory receptors.
  • The endoderm primarily produces internal body parts, the mesoderm primarily produces parts that surround the internal areas, and the ectoderm primarily produces surface parts.
  • As the embryo’s three layers form, life-support systems for the embryo develop rapidly.
  • These life-support systems include the amnion, the umbilical cord and the placenta.
  • By the time most women know they are pregnant, the major organs have begun to form. Organogenesis is the name given to the process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development.
  • In the third week after conception, the neural tube that eventually becomes the spinal cord forms.
  • At about 21 days, eyes begin to appear, and at 24 days the cells for the heart begin to differentiate.
  • During the fourth week, the urogenital system becomes apparent, and arm and leg buds emerge.
  • Four chambers of the heart take shape, and blood vessels appear. From the fifth to the eighth week, arms and legs differentiate further; at this time, the face starts to form but still is not very recognizable.
  • The intestinal tract develops and the facial structures fuse. At eight weeks, the developing organism weighs about 1/30 ounce and is just over 1 inch long.
  1. Fetal Period
  • The fetal period, lasting about seven months, is the prenatal period between two months after conception and birth in typical pregnancies.
  • Growth and development continue their dramatic course during this time.
  • Three months after conception, the fetus is about 3 inches long and weighs about 3 ounces.
  • It has become active, moving its arms and legs, opening and closing its mouth, and moving its head.
  • The face, forehead, eyelids, nose, and chin are distinguishable, as are the upper arms, lower arms, hands, and lower limbs.
  • In most cases, the genitals can be identified as male or female.
  • By the end of the fourth month of pregnancy, the fetus has grown to 6 inches in length and weighs 4 to 7 ounces.
  • At this time, a growth spurt occurs in the body’s lower parts. For the first time, the mother can feel arm and leg movements.
  • By the end of the fifth month, the fetus is about 12 inches long and weighs close to a pound.
  • By the end of the sixth month, the fetus is about 14 inches long and has gained another half pound to a pound.
  • The eyes and eyelids are completely formed, and a fine layer of hair covers the head. A grasping reflex is present and irregular breathing movements occur.
  • As early as six months of pregnancy the fetus for the first time has a chance of surviving outside of the womb—that is, it is viable.
  • Some exposures to teratogens do not cause physical birth defects but can alter the developing brain and influence cognitive and behavioral functioning, in which case the field of study is called behavioral teratology.
  • The dose, genetic susceptibility, and the time of exposure to a particular teratogen influence both the severity of the damage to an embryo or fetus and the type of defect.
  • The dose effect is rather obvious—the greater the dose of an agent, such as a drug, the greater the effect.
  • Genetic susceptibility, t he type or severity of abnormalities caused by a teratogen is linked to the genotype of the pregnant woman and the genotype of the embryo or fetus. The extent to which an embryo or fetus is vulnerable to a teratogen may also depend on its genotype. Also, for unknown reasons, male fetuses are far more likely to be affected by teratogens than female fetuses.
  • Time of exposure, Damage during the germinal period may even prevent implantation. In general, the embryonic period is more vulnerable than the fetal period.
  • The probability of a structural defect is greatest early in the embryonic period, when organs are being formed.
  • After organogenesis is complete, teratogens are less likely to cause anatomical defects. Instead, exposure during the fetal period is more likely instead to stunt growth or to create problems in the way organs function. 2. PRESCRIPTION AND NON – PRESCRIPTION DRUGS:
  • Many women are given prescriptions for drugs while they are pregnant—especially antibiotics, analgesics, and asthma medications. Prescription as well as nonprescription drugs, however, may have effects on the embryo or fetus that the women never imagine.
  • Prescription drugs that can function as teratogens include antibiotics, such as streptomycin and tetracycline; some antidepressants; certain hormones, such as progestin and synthetic estrogen; and Accutane.
  • Negative effects on children’s heart functioning increased when their mothers took these two SSRIs early in pregnancy: sertraline and citalopram.
  • Negative outcomes for antidepressant use during pregnancy, failure to control for various factors that can influence birth outcomes, such as maternal illness or problematic health behaviors, make conclusions about a link between antidepressant use by pregnant women and birth outcomes difficult.
  • Nonprescription drugs that can be harmful include diet pills and high dosages of aspirin, low doses of aspirin pose no harm for the fetus but that high doses can contribute to maternal. 3. PSYCHOACTIVE DRUGS:
  • Psychoactive drugs are drugs that act on the nervous system to alter states of consciousness, modify perceptions, and change moods.
  • Examples include caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine, as well as illicit drugs such as cocaine, methamphetamine, marijuana, and heroin.

CAFFEINE:

  • Pregnant women who consumed 200 or more milligrams of caffeine a day had an increased risk of miscarriage. ALCOHOL
  • Heavy drinking by pregnant women can be devastating to offspring. Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a cluster of abnormalities and problems that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy.
  • The abnormalities include facial deformities and defective limbs, face, and heart.
  • Most children with FASD have learning problems and many are below average in intelligence with some that are mentally retarded.
  • Children and adults with FASD have impaired memory development. NICOTINE:
  • Cigarette smoking by pregnant women can also adversely influence prenatal development, birth, and postnatal development.
  • Preterm births and low birth weights, fetal and neonatal deaths, respiratory problems, sudden infant death syndrome and cardiovascular problems are all more common among the offspring of mothers who smoked during pregnancy.
  • Risk factor for the development of attention defi cit hyperactivity disorder in offspring. COCAINE:
  • The most consistent finding is that cocaine exposure during prenatal development is associated with reduced birth weight, length, and head circumference.
  • Prenatal cocaine exposure has been linked to lower arousal, less effective self-regulation, higher excitability, and lower quality of reflexes at 1 month of age; to impaired motor development at 2 years of age and a slower rate of growth through 10 years of age; to deficits in behavioral self-regulation; to impaired language development and information processing; including attention deficits in preschool and elementary schoolchildren and to increased likelihood of being in a special education program that involves support services.
  • Children born to mothers who use cocaine are likely to have neurological, medical, and cognitive deficits. Cocaine use by pregnant women is never recommended. METHAMPHETAMINE:
  • Methamphetamine, like cocaine, is a stimulant, speeding up an individual’s nervous system. Babies born to mothers who use methamphetamine, or “meth,” during pregnancy are at risk for a number of problems, including high infant mortality, low birth weight, and developmental and behavioral problems. MARIJUANA:
  • Prenatal marijuana exposure was related to lower intelligence in children. HEROIN:
  • Women who plan to have children should have a blood test before they become pregnant to determine if they are immune to the disease.
  • Syphilis (a sexually transmitted infection) is more damaging later in prenatal development— four months or more after conception. Damage includes eye lesions, which can cause blindness, and skin lesions.
  • Genital herpes, newborns contract this virus when they are delivered through the birth canal of a mother with genital herpes. About one-third of babies delivered through an infected birth canal die; another one-fourth become brain damaged.
  • A mother can infect her offspring with HIV/AIDS in three ways: (1) during gestation across the placenta, (2) during delivery through contact with maternal blood or fl uids, and (3) postpartum (after birth) through breast feeding.
  • A research review indicated that when newborns have physical defects they are more likely to have diabetic mothers, women who have gestational diabetes also may deliver very large infants, and the infants are at risk for diabetes themselves. 7. OTHER PARENTAL FACTORS: MATERNAL DIET AND NUTRITION:
  • A developing embryo or fetus depends completely on its mother for nutrition, which comes from the mother’s blood.
  • The nutritional status of the embryo or fetus is determined by the mother’s total caloric intake, and her intake of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. Children born to malnourished mothers are more likely than other children to be malformed.
  • Being overweight before and during pregnancy can also put the embryo or fetus at risk.
  • A recent research review concluded that obesity during pregnancy is linked to increased maternal risks of infertility, hypertensive disorders, diabetes, and delivery by cesarean section.
  • Obesity during pregnancy included these increased risks to the fetus: macrosomia (newborn with excessive birth weight), intrauterine fetal death, stillbirth, and admission to the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).
  • Toddlers of mothers who did not use folic acid supplements in the fi rst trimester of pregnancy had more behavior problems. EMOTIONAL STATES AND STRESS:
  • When a pregnant woman experiences intense fears, anxieties, and other emotions or negative mood states, physiological changes occur that may affect her fetus.
  • High maternal anxiety and stress during pregnancy can have long-term consequences for the offspring.
  • High levels of stress are at increased risk for having a child with emotional or cognitive problems, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and language delay. MATERNAL AGE:
  • When possible harmful effects on the fetus and infant are considered, two maternal ages are of special interest: (1) adolescence, and (2) 35 years and older. The mortality rate of infants born to adolescent mothers is double that of infants born to mothers in their twenties.
  • Maternal age is also linked to the risk that a child will have Down syndrome. When mothers are 35 years and older, risks also increase for low birth weight, for preterm delivery, and for fetal death.