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EPISTEMOLOGY AND METAPHYSICS (WESTERN)
Unit I Meaning and Scope of Philosophy, Metaphysics, Epistemology, Axiology, Concept of Applied Philosophy Q.1. What is the meaning of the word 'philosophy'? Ans. The word 'philosophy' literally means 'love of wisdom' or pursuit of knowledge. Q.2. From which words the term 'philosophy' is derived? Ans. The term 'philosophy' is derived from two Greek words 'philos' and 'sophia'. Q.3. What is the meaning of the words 'philos' and 'sophia'? Ans. The word 'philos' means love and 'sophia' means wisdom. Q.4. What is the Indian term for philosophy? Ans. The Indian term for philosophy is 'Darshana". Q.5. "Philosophy aims at the knowledge of the eternal, of the essential nature of things." - Who said this? Ans. Plato. Q.6. "Philosophy is completely unified knowledge the generalizations of philosophy comprehending and consolidating the widest generalizations of science." - Who said this? Ans. Herbert Spencer. Q.7. "Philosophy is the science and criticism of cognition." - Who said this? Ans. Immanuel Kant. Q.8. What are the main branches of philosophy? Ans. There are mainly three branches of philosophy - (1) Epistemology, (2) Metaphysics and (3) Axiology.
Q.9. From which words the term 'Epistemology' is derived? Ans. The term 'Epistemology' is derived from two words, 'episteme' and 'logos'.. Q.10. What is the meaning of the term 'Epistemology'? Ans. The term 'Epistemology' literally means 'theory or science of knowledge'. Q.11. From which words the term Metaphysics is derived? Ans. The term 'Metaphysics' is derived from two Greek words 'meta' meaning 'after' and 'physica' meaning nature. Q.12. Which school of philosophy defines philosophy as the 'logical analysis of the propositions of science'? Ans. Logical Positivists. Q.13. Who defined philosophy as the "knowledge of reality, of being as such, of that which is"? Ans. Plato. Q.14. "Philosophy is the metaphysic of experience." – Who said this? Ans. Immanuel Kant. Q.15. What is the method of Philosophy? Ans. The method of philosophy is rational reflection. Q.16. What is said to be the origin of philosophy? Ans. Wonder is said to be the origin of philosophy. Q.17. From which words term 'Ontology' is derived? Ans. The term 'Ontology' is derived from two Greek words 'Ontos' and 'Logos'. Q.18. What is the meaning of the words 'Ontos' and 'Logos'? Ans. The word 'Ontos' means 'Being' or 'Reality' and 'Logos' means 'science'. Q.19. What does 'Ontology' mean? Ans. Ontology literally means the science of Being or Reality.
years there developed several disciplines under applied philosophy such as philosophy of education, philosophy of history, philosophy of law, philosophy of science and so forth.
- Elucidate the statement - "Philosophy is the synthesis of the sciences". Ans. This is a widely prevalent conception of philosophy. According to this conception philosophy is a universal science which interprets and unites the results of the different special sciences into a system.
- "Philosophy is the logical study of the foundations of sciences". Elucidate. Ans. According to this definition of philosophy, all the special sciences are based on certain basic concepts which are more or less assumed to be true without any examination. These concepts are space, time, substance, causality etc. The task of philosophy is to examine critically the validity of these concepts by the method of logical analysis.
- "Philosophy is the metaphysic of experience". Explain the statement very briefly. Ans. This definition of philosophy is offered by Kant. He maintains that philosophy should give up the futile attempt to know ultimate reality like God, soul etc. and should confine itself to the domain of experience. According to Kant, the function of philosophy is confined to logical analysis of the universal forms of sense- intuition and categories of understanding.
- Write two points of difference between Philosophy and Metaphysics. Ans. Though the intimate relation between philosophy and metaphysics, yet there are certain points of differences among them. (i) The scope of philosophy is wider than that of metaphysics. Metaphysics studies the nature of reality but philosophy studies not only the knowledge of reality as a whole but it also deals with epistemology, axiology etc. (ii) Metaphysics primarily deals with the ultimate reality and tries to estimate the real nature of things. Philosophy, on the other hand, comprehends both reality and its manifestations.
- Mention two points of difference between Epistemology and Metaphysics.
Ans. There are two points are- (i) Epistemology is the study of knowledge, while metaphysics is the study of reality. (ii) Epistemology investigates into the nature, conditions and limits or the validity of knowledge, while metaphysics seeks to understand the nature of reality and existence.
- Explain the nature and scope of Philosophy. Ans. The word 'philosophy' is derived from two Greek words 'philos' meaning 'love' and 'sophia' meaning 'wisdom'. Philosophy, thus, literally means 'love of wisdom'. It is an attempt to arrive at a rational conception of the reality as a whole. Philosophy enquires into the nature of the universe in which we live, the nature of soul, God, destiny etc. It enquires into the nature of matter, time, space, causality, evolution, mind etc., and their relation to one another. Philosophy is the critical analysis of the popular and scientific concepts, and the discovery of their relations to one another. It is a rational attempt to integrate our knowledge and interpret and unify our experiences. It systematizes our scientific, moral, aesthetic and religious experiences. Philosophy gives a synoptic view of the universe which comprehends all, but excludes none. For the philosopher genuine or philosophical. knowledge is always knowledge of the 'whole', the organised totality of reality and value. Such knowledge is not confined within the bounds of reason alone but may extend beyond it to other elements of experience to include the elements of faith, feeling or emotional intuition. By the scope of philosophy we mean the province or domain within which it confines its enquires. Philosophy is generally defined as an explanation and appreciation of life and universe as a whole. From this definition it becomes clear that philosophy is the most comprehensive of all enquiries and has the widest scope of all. It includes within its scope every branch of human enquiry and excludes none. Philosophy studies the universe as a whole. Now the universe appears as a realm of phenomena which the philosopher cannot ignore. But phenomena form the subject-matter of science. Philosophy must include phenomena or scientific study of the universe. But behind phenomena there must be reality from which phenomena spring. Now the
preceded by epistemology. Epistemology is important and it is an indispensable preliminary to philosophy but it cannot be identified with philosophy. As a matter of fact, epistemology and philosophy are intimately related to each other. One cannot stand without the other. Every philosopher must justify his claim to know the nature of Reality by a proper criticism of the faculty of knowledge.
- What is philosophy? How is philosophy related to Metaphysics? Ans. The word 'Philosophy' is derived from two Greek words 'Philos' and 'Sophia'. The word 'philos' means 'love' and 'sophia' means 'wisdoem'. In this sense any pursuit for knowledge is philosophy. Philosophy is a comprehensive study of the universe as a whole. In general, our rational enquiry about the ultimate reality behind the phenomenal world, as well as to find out the universal meaning and significance of life and the world is called philosophy. There is difference of opinion with regard to the relation between philosophy and metaphysics. According to Plato, philosophy and metaphysics are identical. Metaphysics deals with the transcendental reality. The Logical Positivists deny the existence of any transcendental reality. Hence the Logical Positivists deny the possibility of metaphysics. Agnostics also believe that metaphysics is impossible. But in truth, there is an intimate relation philosophy and metaphysics. Metaphysics is an indispensable part of philosophy. But the scope of philosophy is wider than that of metaphysics. Metaphysics, primarily deals with the ultimate Reality. It tries to estimate the real nature of things. Philosophy, on the other hand, comprehends both reality and its manifestations. Phenomena and noumena are two aspects of one and same concrete Reality. Therefore, reality is known through manifestations. Philosophy, thus, comprehends phenomenology of science and metaphysics or the theory of Reality.
- What is philosophy? How philosophy is related to Epistemology? Ans. The word 'Philosophy' is derived from two Greek words - 'Philos' and 'Sophia'. The word 'philos' means 'love' and 'sophia' means 'wisdom'. In this sense any pursuit for knowledge is philosophy. Philosophy is a comprehensive study of the universe as a whole. In general, our rational enquiry about the ultimate reality behind the phenomenal world, as well as to find out the universal meaning and significance of life and the world is called philosophy.
Philosophy deals also with the ultimate reality or Being. It is natural for us to enquire if knowledge of ultimate reality is possible. If we are constituted in such a way that we cannot know the reality, if knowledge is impossible, it would be quite useless to investigate the nature of reality. It is, therefore, evident that before we can successfully investigate into the nature of reality, we must justify our claim to do so by a proper criticism of the faculty of knowledge. Philosophy should, thus, be preceded by epistemology. Epistemology is important and it is an indispensable preliminary to philosophy but it cannot be identified with philosophy. As a matter of fact, epistemology and philosophy are intimately related to each other. One cannot stand without the other. Every philosopher must justify his claim to know the nature of Reality by a proper criticism of the faculty of knowledge.
- What is Philosophy? Explain the relation between Epistemology and Meaphysics or Ontology. 2+6= Ans. The word 'Philosophy' is derived from two Greek words 'Philos' and 'Sophia'. The word 'philos' means 'love' and 'sophia' means 'wisdoem'. In this sense any pursuit for knowledge is philosophy. Philosophy is a comprehensive study of the universe as a whole. In general, our rational enquiry about the ultimate reality behind the phenomenal world, as well as to find out the universal meaning and significance of life and the world is called philosophy. Both Epistemology and Metaphysics are parts of Philosophy. Epistemology enquires into the nature, conditions, the limits and validity of knowledge. Metaphysics or Ontology investigates into the ultimate nature of reality. It is argued that before we begin journey to know the ultimate reality, we must be sure that human knowledge is competent to know it. This can be known by a searching enquiry into the nature, condition and limit of knowledge. Thus, Epistemology is the fundamental basis and ground of Metaphysics. Though epistemology is the indispensable preliminary to Metaphysics, it must not be identified with metaphysics. As a matter of fact, epistemology and metaphysics are so intimately related to each other that one cannot stand without the other. Metaphysics is dependent on epistemology in so far as epistemology ascertains whether reality can be known at all. Metaphysics or Ontology, again, ascertains the nature of reality. Without a prior knowledge of the nature of reality, it is not possible to ascertain whether this reality can be apprehended by knowledge. Hence,
Q.1. Who is considered to be the founder of Greek philosophy? Ans. Thales is considered to be the founder of Greek philosophy. Q.2. Name one dialogue of Plato. Ans. The Republic. Q.3. Which Greek philosopher advocated that knowledge is perception? Ans. Protagoras. Q.4. In which dialogue Plato refuted Protagoras' theory of knowledge. Ans. The Theaetetus. Q.5. Is opinion knowledge according to Plato? Ans. No, opinion is not knowledge according to Plato. Q.6. What is the source of knowledge according to Plato? Ans. According to Plato, reason is the source of knowledge. Q.7. How can the 'ideas' be known according to Plato? Ans. According to Plato, 'ideas' can be known by rational insight. Q.8. Does the Platonic idea exist is space and time? Ans. No, Platonic idea is non- temporal and non-spatial. Q.9. Are the ideas of Plato material in nature? Ans. No, the ideas of Plato are immaterial in nature. Q.10. Is Plato a realist? Ans. Yes, Plato is a realist because his theory of idea is based on realism. Q.11. How many realities are there according to Aristotle? Ans. There are two realities according to Aristotle. Q.12. What are the fundamental categories of Aristotle? Ans. Form and Matter.
Q.13. How matter is related to form? Ans. Matter and form are inseparably related. Q.14. Fill up the gaps with appropriate words 'Form is and matter is_______. Ans. Universal, Particular. Q.15. Give one example which is both matter and form. Ans. 'Wood' for example is matter in relation to chair and form in relation to the growing tree. Q.16. How many causes are there according to Aristotle? Ans. According to Aristotle, there are four causes. Q.17. Give an example of material cause. Ans. The block of marble is the material cause of the statue. Q.18. What is Efficient cause? Ans. The energy or skill of the sculptor is the Efficient cause of the statue. Q.19. What is Formal cause? Ans. When effect is produced, it has some new form. That form is the Formal cause of this effect. Q.20. What is Final cause? Ans. While an effect is produced, there is some purpose or objective. This purpose or objective is the Final cause.
- Name two dialogues of Plato which contained his theory of knowledge. Ans. Dialogues which contained Plato's theory of knowledge are the Republic and the Theaetetus.
- Write two points in support of Plato's rejection of Protagoras' theory of knowledge as perception. Ans. There are two points are-
believed in the ontological reality of the transcendent world which consists of ideas or forms or concepts, his theory of ideas is known as conceptual realism.
- How many causes are there according to Aristotle? Name them. Ans. According to Aristotle, there are four causes. These are (1) Material cause, (2) Formal cause, (3) Efficient cause and (4) Final cause.
- What is Material cause? Ans. The material cause of a thing is the matter or stuff out of which an effect is produced. That means, in order that an effect is to be produced, some material is required. That material out of which the effect is produced is called the 'Material cause' of the effect. Marble, for example, is the material cause of the statue.
- What is efficient cause? Ans. The efficient cause of a thing is the labour, skill, instruments used in making the thing. In the process of producing the effect some energy is being transmitted from one thing to another which other thing did not have it earlier. Thus the energy or skill which the sculptor applies to the material in making the statue is the efficient cause of the statue.
- Give a brief account of Plato's theory of knowledge. Or, Explain briefly Plato's theory of knowledge. Ans. The epistemology of Plato has two aspects - positive and negative. In his dialogue 'The Republic' he has presented the positive aspect of his theory wherein he has stated the nature of knowledge. In his dialogue 'Theatetus' he has presented the negative aspect of his theory. There he has rejected the Protagoras' theory that knowledge is perception and also the theory that opinion is knowledge. Plato has rejected the Protagoras' theory that knowledge is perception. Plato argues that what appears to each individual true is true for that individual. But this is at any rate false in its application to our judgment of future events. It may appear to me that I shall be Chief Minister next year. But instead of that I find myself, may be in prison. In general, what appears to each to be the truth about the future frequently does not turn out so in the event. Perception yields contradictory impressions. What tastes bitter to a sick man is sweet to the healthy. Thus, the same thing becomes
bitter and sweet, which is opposed to each other. If we accept the Protagoras' theory that knowledge is perception it will result in the impossibility of all discussion, discourse, proof or disproof. Plato has rejected the theory that knowledge is opinion. He argues that if knowledge is not same as perception, then opinion also cannot be knowledge. According to him, wrong opinion is not knowledge. But even right opinion cannot be called knowledge. If I say without stating any reason, that there will be thunderstorm next Sunday, it may by chance turns out to be correct. But it cannot be said that, in making this blind guess, I had any knowledge, although as it turned out to be true, I had right opinion. Right opinion may also be grounded, not on mere guess-work, but on something which, though better, is still not true understanding. Plato in his dialogue 'Republic' has presented his view of epistemology. There he has discussed four types of knowledge, namely, conjectural, sensuous, hypothetical and rational. Conjectural knowledge is the lowest type of knowledge. It deals with illusory experience and ideas. Sensuous knowledge is attained through five sense- organs. It gives us knowledge of the things of the external world. Hypothetical knowledge is neither sensory nor practical. It includes knowledge of numbers and forms as found in different branches of mathematics. In Platonic epistemology rational insight or reason is the highest form of knowledge. It gives a knowledge of forms, concepts or ideas. It is achieved through a dialectical process unhindered by sensory perceptions. Plato maintains that concepts are real entities and transcendental. Therefore, knowledge of concepts or ideas alone can be called knowledge.
- How does Plato reject perception and opinion as knowledge? Ans. Plato in his dialogue 'Theatetus' has rejected perception and opinion as knowledge. He rejected the Protagoras' theory that knowledge is perception. Plato argues that what appears to each individual true is true for that individual. It may proved to be false in its application to our judgment of future events. It may appear to me that I shall be Chief Minister next year. But instead of that I find myself, may be in prison. In general, what appears to each to be the truth about future frequently does not turn out so in the event. Perception yields contradictory impressions. What tastes bitter to a sick man is sweet to the healthy person. Thus, the same thing
ontological reality of the transcendent which consists of ideas or forms or concepts, the philosophical theory of Plato is also known as 'Conceptual Realism'. Plato's theory of ideas is based on realism. Plato acknowledged the existence of sense-world but denied permanent reality to it. He believed that all objects of the world are expressions of concepts or forms. We can have knowledge of 'form' or 'idea' which is the underlying principle in different classes of sensible objects. According to Plato, 'forms' or 'ideas' are fixed in the nature of things while things are made in their image or likeliness. Things or particulars are the replica of the eternal, indestructible forms or ideas. Since the particular things are copies of the concepts or ideas, the concepts are ultimately real, while particular things have only temporary existence and reality. As objects of sense- perception is in space and time, they cannot be permanent and invariable. But concept or idea is non-temporal and non-spatial. It is a single substance existing timelessly and independently of any of its manifestations but particulars logically depend on concepts or ideas for their existence. Thus, it can be said that platonic ideas are absolutely different from particulars which are subject to change. The ideas or concepts which exist independently of space and time can be apprehended not by sense but by reason.
- Explain characteristics of Plato's Ideas. Ans. The philosophy is Plato is best known for his theory of ideas. According to Plato, over and above the world of sense perception, there is a transcendent world of ideas. He tried to explain the characteristics of 'ideas'. The following are the principal characteristics of Plato's ideas: (i) Ideas are substances: According to Plato, ideas are substances. Substance in philosophy is defined as a substratum which persists through changes, and is immutable and eternal. Ideas possess these qualities and thus ideas are substances, according to Plato. (ii) Ideas are general and universal: Ideas are general and universal. An idea is not any particular thing. The idea of the horse is not this or that horse. It is the general concept of all horses. It is the universal horse. (iii) Ideas are beyond space and time: Ideas are outside space and time. Since the universal concepts or forms are found nowhere in the sensuous world and since
whatever is in space and time is subject to decay and change, the ideas which are indestructible must be beyond space and time. (iv) Ideas are not material objects: In as much as 'the idea' or 'concept' or 'form' is something universal and unbounded by space and time, it is not to be discovered anywhere in the world of sensuous objects. Therefore, ideas must be immaterial. (v) Idea is a unity: Each idea is a unity. It is the one-amid the many. The idea of man is one, although individual man are many. There cannot be more than one idea for each class of objects. If there were several ideas of justice, we should have to seek for the common element among them, and thus common element would itself be one idea of justice. (vi) Ideas are indestructible: In as much as the ideas are immaterial and non- composite, these cannot be destroyed. They are not subject to destruction and decay. They are eternal and immutable substances. They are pure and simple. (vii) Ideas are essences of all things: The ideas are essences of all things. The definition gives us what is essential to a thing. If we define man as a rational animal, this means that reason is of the essence of man. (viii) Ideas are rational: Ideas are apprehended through reason. The finding of the common element in the manifold is the work of inductive reason, and through this alone is knowledge of the ideas possible.
- How many realities are there according to Aristotle? Name them. Explain briefly Aristotle's theory of reality. Or, Explain briefly Aristotle's theory of Form and Matter. Ans. There are two realities according to Aristotle. They are Form and Matter. According to Aristotle, every object has two aspects - material and formal. A thing is made of some matter and also has certain form or shape. An object cannot exist without matter and similarly it cannot exist without having some form. Therefore, an object according to Aristotle is a mixture or blend of matter and form. Forms are, according to Aristotle universal whereas matter is particular. A sugar cube for example, is a particular but cubeness is found not only in sugar but in innumerable other objects as dice, toys etc. Therefore, the form of cubeness is something general and universal, whereas when it comes into contact with sugar, wood, marble etc. it becomes particular. Thus matter is a principle of individuation or
energy is being transmitted from one thing to another which other thing did not possess it earlier. Thus the energy or skill which the sculptor applies to the material in making the statue is the efficient cause of the statue. (iii) Formal Cause: The formal cause of a thing is the new form or shape is imposed on the subject produced. Every object possesses some form and is made up of some matter. Now, when an effect is produced there is not only some material or substance but there is also some change in the form of the object. Thus, a sculptor takes a block of marble and impresses on it the form of a particular hero of ancient time. (IV) Final Cause: The final cause of a thing is the end or purpose for which the change is brought into existence. This end lies latent in the mind of the creator or producer in the form of an idea. Thus the purpose for which a statue is made to commemorate the heroic contributions of a national hero is the final cause. Unit III Theories of Knowledge: Rationalism, Empiricism, Kant’s Critical Theory, Intuitionism Q.1. Which theory holds that experience is the source of knowledge? Ans. Empiricism. Q.2. Name two empiricist philosophers. Ans. John Locke and David Hume. Q.3. According which theory reason is the source of knowledge? Ans. Rationalism.
- Name two Greek rationalist philosophers. Ans. Socrates and Plato. Q.5. Name two modern rationalist philosophers. Ans. Descartes and Spinoza. Q.6. Who advocated the Critical theory of knowledge?
Ans. Immanuel Kant. Q.7. "There is nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the senses." - Who said this? Ans. John Locke. Q.8. "There is nothing in the intellect which was not previously in the senses except the intellect itself." - Who said this? Ans: Leibnitz. Q.9. According to which theory true knowledge of reality can be obtained only through intuition? Ans. Intuitionism. Q.10. Who advocated the theory of intuitionism? Ans. Bergson. Q.11. How many ideas are there according to Descartes? Ans. There are three ideas according to Descartes. Q.12. Who said that all our ideas are innate? Ans. Leibnitz. Q.13. What method did Descartes apply in his philosophy? Ans. Mathematical method. Q.14. What does 'Cogito ergo sum' mean? Ans. 'Cogito ergo sum' means 'I think, therefore, I exist'. Q.15. Who refuted the theory of innate ideas? Ans. John Locke. Q.16. Who is the author of the book "Essay Concerning Human Understanding"? Ans. John Locke. Q.17. "Mind at birth is a tabula rasa". - Who said this?
