Edexcel A2 Implications 6RS04: Ethics A workbook and study ..., Study notes of Ethics

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Edexcel A2 Implications 6RS04: EthicsA workbook and study guide

Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – Implications

Unit 4: Implications – Ethics Contents Introduction^ What is this unit about? 1

How will this workbook help you?

What do you have to do in the exam?

What is meant by ‘religion and human experience’?

Useful guidance^

Anthology passage: Method and moral theory – D. Jamieson^ Introducing the passage

Overview^

Questions to consider^

Consolidation exercises^

Worksheet activities^

Anthology passage: Personal relationships – H. LaFollette^ Introducing the passage

Overview^

Questions to consider^

Consolidation exercises^

Worksheet activities^

Anthology passage: Modern moral philosophy – J. Schneewind^ Introducing the passage

Overview^

Questions to consider^

Consolidation exercises^

Worksheet activities^

End-of-unit quick quiz^ Jamieson^

Lafollette^

Schneewind^

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – Implications

Philosophy of Religion

How will this workbook help you? This workbook covers the three passages set for the Ethics option. It will help you:understand the key ideas in each of the passages so that you understand what each writer is •^ arguingget to grips with the terminology used •^ find and develop links with other units of the course •^ decide to what extent you agree with the claims made by the writer of each passage •^ understand the implications for religion and for human experience of the ideas raised in each •^ text. There are no right answers in this unit and the examiners expect to see a wide range ofresponses in the exam. Answers should include anything relevant which arises from a scholarlydiscussion of the passages, and the examiner will have no preconceived idea of how you shouldrespond. This workbook is intended to help you understand the passages and their key ideasand to learn to make links for yourself. As you work through the passages in class or by yourself,you will find many more connections and raise many more implications than will be coveredhere, and that is exactly as it should be. As a workbook, it is not intended to be prescriptive or toshow you the only way to approach this unit, but to offer you some starting points to get going, orhelp to start you off again if you run out of inspiration! Please note that neither Edexcel nor its representatives can provide answers to the questionsoffered in this workbook, which are intended as a stimulus when working through thesepassages. It is up to you to think about the questions, reach your own conclusions, and produceanswers that you find most persuasive. 3

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – Implications

Philosophy of Religion

What do you have to do in the exam? The examination for this unit is 1 hour 15 minutes long. You will be given an extract from 4

one^ of

the passages you have studied from the Anthology and you will answer

one^ question on it. The question is in^ two^ parts and will always be the same. It is deliberately open ended to ensure thata full range of possible responses can be credited:^ (a) Explain the argument and/or interpretation in the passage. (30)^ (b) Do you agree with the idea(s) expressed? Justify your point of view and discussits implications for understanding religion and human experience. (20) Notice that part (a) is worth 30 marks, while part (b) is worth 20 marks. In the exam you shouldaim to spend about 45 minutes answering part (a) and about 30 minutes answering part (b). The examiner will mark your answer against two Assessment Objectives (AOs).AO1: Select and demonstrate clearly relevant knowledge and understanding through the use •^ of evidence, examples and correct language and terminology appropriate to the course ofstudy. Candidates should also demonstrate knowledge and understanding of theconnections between different elements of their course of study.AO2: Critically evaluate and justify a point of view through the use of evidence and reasoned •^ argument. Candidates should also relate elements of their course of study to their broadercontext and to specified aspects of human experience. AO1 is covered by part (a) of the question and AO2 by part (b). You should treat both parts ofthe question separately, rather than running them together in one single essay. This will make iteasier for the examiner to credit your answer. Good marks for part (a) will derive from being ableto express and expand on the ideas in the passage without relying on repeating the wording ofthe passage itself, using well chosen quotations rather than copying out chunks of text. Youshould use examples and illustrations and be able to explore the reasoning behind the passage.Good marks for (b) will arise from a balanced discussion and evaluation of the implications of theideas expressed in the passage and your own response to them.Answers may benefit from demonstrating an awareness of the rest of the passage, although •^ this is not essential to reach the highest levels.There is no presumption that you should have a detailed knowledge of scholars referenced •^ in passing in the passages.You may draw on material from elsewhere in your studies for this qualification. •^

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – Implications

Philosophy of Religion

Useful guidance … It is far better to avoid a ‘passage spotting’ approach to working with these texts and instead aimfor a good understanding of the whole passage, as well as finding links between the threepassages. If you rely on ‘passage spotting’ you will inevitably be disappointed if the passage youwant to appear in the exam, or think will be in the exam, is not the one which is used. This willnot put you in the right frame of mind for thinking about the passage you 6

are^ asked to write about. Be reassured, however, that the people who choose the extracts for the exam paper each yeardo not try to make things difficult for you. They are unlikely to choose extracts which are obscureor which do not include much for you to examine and assess. Passages which include lists ofnames or dates, bullet points, multiple quotations from other sources, references to otherchapters or sections of the book from which the passage is drawn, or which offer littlesubstantive content, are not going to do a good job for you or them. The most interesting andengaging extracts, and those which allow you to explore a range of issues, are more likely toappear on the exam paper than those which limit you before you have even started.

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – Implications

Anthology Passage: METHOD AND MORAL THEORY ‘Method and moral theory’ by D. Jamieson Introducing the passage This passage offers an interesting review of how traditional moral theoretical approaches toethics have changed in recent years, from a dominant conception of moral theory as a meansof categorizing actions and their agents to the use of examples in moral philosophy. Althoughmuch of this article can be directly linked with issues you will have studied in other AS and A2papers, it does offer special challenges by introducing you to key ideas in moral philosophywhich you may not have expected to consider – foundationalism and coherentism, forexample. The article also includes names of moral philosophers, and although some of thesewill be familiar, many will not. It is important that you don’t panic about this since, as explained in the Introduction (on page4), there is no assumption that in the exam you will comment on every scholar named in anextract. As you work through the article you can, to a large extent, ignore lists of names, andfocus on those which are familiar, or where the argument associated with them is clearlycentral to understanding the passage as a whole. You will simply slow down your progressthrough the article if you spend too long on finding out, and then writing, about people who arementioned, just to show that you can! The guidance questions which follow the overview areintended to help you understand the most important ideas contained in Jamieson’s passage,and^ not^ with following up on the details and the thinking of each scholar mentioned in the text.Do approach the questions with this in mind. Of course, you are free to find out more aboutthese scholars if you choose, and your teacher may ask you to do that, but remember: theexaminer will not be following a mark scheme that awards credit for how much you knowabout the views of any named scholar. You will have studied topics at AS and A2 which will help your understanding of this passage:All ethical theories at AS and A2 •^ The relationship between religion and morality (AS and A2) •^ •^ Ethical language. We’ll start with a general overview of the passage. 7

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – ImplicationsMoral theories derive from moral theorizing but, as the anti-theorists observe, they are rarely •^ used for making moral decisions.However, when we evaluate the moral theorizing of ourselves and others, those evaluations •^ do have some effect on moral practice. •^ Anti-theorists argue that everyday moral practice creates moral theory, but moral theoriescannot reveal the moral truth. Check that:^9 you understand the difference between moral theory and moral practice;^9 you understand why Jamieson suggests that the ‘dominant conception’ of moraltheories has undergone a change^9 you understand the dominant conception of moral theory^9 you understand the challenges posed to the dominant conception by Williamsand Anscombe^9 you understand the claim that moral practice creates moral theory^9 you understand why these views are open to extended discussion andevaluation. The methods of theorizing (pages 137–39) Although moral theorizing is more likely to be ‘eclectic and incremental’, philosophers haveattempted to identify principles and methods which underlie it, appealing frequently toepistemology to provide a model. Foundationalism •^ Foundationalism is the view that beliefs are justified by virtue of their relationship to otherbeliefs which themselves require no justification. This is an attractive position because itseems that at some point, a chain of justification must end.This position poses a problem in so far as how some beliefs can require no justification. •^ Traditionally, such beliefs are considered self-justifying or self-evident.Difficulties are posed by attempting to derive a moral theory from self-evident truths, since •^ there is inevitably disagreement as to which truths are self-evident. •^ Foundationalism in ethics has always been problematic because of a lack of sense-data. Coherentism Coherentism is the view that beliefs can be justified only by their relationship to other beliefs. •^ •^ Rawls suggested it may be possible to reach equilibrium, but this can be challenged on thebasis that some beliefs may be in equilibrium and yet not constitute a true moral theory. 9

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – ImplicationsAttempting to identify objective moral truths also poses problems as we cannot establish with •^ reliability if they are foundational or coherent.Other philosophers have posed derivationism, which focuses on questions regarding •^ rationality rather than morality. Other questions of method A key issue continues to be whether moral theory can or must be revisionary, and how far •^ foundationalism and coherentism serve to complement each other.Moral theories must be consistent and complete enough to provide a moral perspective – in •^ other words, they must be broad enough to apply to a range of moral problems. •^ Both foundationalists and coherentists are drawn to the notion of intuition as the means bywhich we identify a set of moral beliefs. Thus they are interested in how we can identify andassess moral intuitions. The role of examples in moral philosophy has proved to be central tothis discussion. Check that:^9 you understand the meaning of foundationalism^9 you understand the meaning of coherentism^9 you understand how these may relate to consideration of moral theorizing^9 you understand how intuition may be thought to play an important role in moraltheorizing. The role of examples (pages 139–40) Examples are used in moral philosophy in order to show how appeals to principles may be •^ applied to particular cases. •^ Four types of examples are typically used: literary; ostensive; hypothetical and imaginary. Animportant distinction needs to be made between hypothetical and imaginary examples.Hypothetical examples involve using situations or events which may have occurred or couldoccur. Imaginary examples involve possibilities which could only occur in worlds other thanours.Imaginary examples are less useful than hypothetical examples and our intuitions about •^ them are untrustworthy, as shown by Michael Tooley’s example which depends onconceiving of a world in which it is possible to transform kittens into people. The examplebecomes overburdened with unhelpful questions which prevent the real issue from beingaddressed. 10

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – Implications Questions to consider Introduction (page 134) Why have moral philosophers demonstrated an interest in these areas: (i) moral language; •^ (ii) value and obligation; (iii) normative theories; (iv) duties concerning animals and futuregenerations? •^ Identify key philosophers and approaches which you associate with these areas.What implications may be raised for (i) religion and (ii) human experience by these areas of •^ interest?Which of these areas do you think is most important for modern moral philosophers to •^ address? Explain your answer. •^ Explain the difference between questions 12

about^ moral theory and questions

in^ moral theory. What does it mean to speak of moral theories as ‘abstract structures whose role is to supply • justification rather than motivation?Explain the reference to coherentism (see page 138). ( •

NB: You would not be obliged to pick

up on this reference to coherentism in a response to this section in an exam, but it is usefulto understand the term, as it is important later.) • Do you agree that ‘the intellectual landscape is not as uniform as it once was’? Give reasonsfor your answer. Do you think this is a good or a bad thing? What are the implications of yourview for (i) religion and (ii) human experience?Why might it be argued that moral theories have little role to play in practical reasoning? • Why do you think Michael Stocker (no need to look him up elsewhere) argued that modern • moral theory is ‘schizophrenic’?What does it mean to describe modern moral philosophy as ‘serving up a cafeteria of • conflicting moralities’? What are the implications for (i) religion and (ii) human experience ifthis is the case? The nature of moral theories (pages 134–36) The dominant conception Explain the dominant conception of moral theory. • • What is the significance of terms such as ‘virtuous’, ‘right’, ‘wrong’, ‘permitted’ or ‘obligatory’?What problems for moral philosophy are posed by their use?

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – ImplicationsExplain briefly how different moral theories interpret different categories such as good or •^ right.Identify how one or more moral theorists have tried to make moral theories universal and •^ ‘coercive’. Have they been successful? What may be the implications of this approach? •^ How may law and/or economics help to understand the role and application of moraltheories? (If there are A-level economists in the class, their help will be useful. Don’t worryabout this question if you are not sure about it.) The anti-theorists Why may a ‘law conception of ethics’ be unattractive to Elizabeth Anscombe? •^ •^ Do you agree that modern moral philosophy is ‘untenable without the notion of a divinelawgiver’?Has modern moral philosophy banished God? If so, is this a good thing or a bad thing? •^ What are the implications of this position for (i) religion and (ii) human experience? •^ Do you agree that a ‘divine command’ approach to ethics is ‘anachronistic’? •^ Why do you think Anscombe uses the analogy of the criminal courts here? Is it effective? •^ Give reasons for your answer. •^ Do you think it is true to say that there can be ‘no moral authority in pluralistic, liberalsocieties’? What are the implications of adopting this position?What problems posed by moral philosophy are identified by McIntyre and Williams (bottom •^ of page 135)? Which do you think is the most significant and why?What are the two different reasons for which Anscombe and Williams seek to abolish •^ morality? Do you find either or both persuasive? Give reasons for your answer. •^ What are the implications (i) for religion and (ii) for human experience, of the claim that ‘wecan be free to live our own lives in a truly secular society only when we have overcome thebondage of morality’?How might a Christian respond to this claim? (focus on the concept of being in ‘bondage’ to •^ morality).Do you agree that men and women have different patterns of moral response? Give reasons •^ for your answer. What are the implications of this feminist view and of challenges to it? 13

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – ImplicationsWhat does Jamieson mean by the claims that foundationalism in ethics is particularly •^ problematic because ‘it was never clear what was to do the work of sense-data’? How mightyour studies of ethical language help here? If you have studied the work of the LogicalPositivists, explain how they might have responded to this observation. Coherentism •^ Explain what is meant by coherentism. Distinguish between a coherence theory of truth anda correspondence theory of truth.Do you think that ethical beliefs are more likely to be coherently true than foundationalist? •^ Give reasons for your answer. What implications may arise from taking this position?Explain Rawls’ method of reflective equilibrium. Give examples of how this may happen •^ during moral theorizing. •^ Do you agree with the challenges made by Brandt, Hare and Singer (in as far as they arementioned here in passing)? What other examples could be offered as a challenge to ethicalcoherentism?How far might coherentism be compatible with emotivism? •^ Why is the question of ‘how moral truths are to be identified’ such a key issue in moral •^ philosophy? •^ Explain what you understand by the attempt to ‘derive a moral theory from … morefundamental considerations concerning rationality’.Is rationality a good basis on which to determine moral principles? Give reasons for your •^ answer. Which scholars may agree/disagree with this position? What are the implications for(i) religion and (ii) human experience from adopting this position? Other questions of method What do you think Jamieson means by ‘common sense morality’? Does such a thing exist? •^ Is it likely to be reliable? On what grounds might it be established?What does it mean to describe a moral belief as ‘privileged’? Offer examples of how this may •^ be illustrated. •^ What implications for (i) religious and (ii) human experience may arise from the view ‘that(some of) our everyday moral beliefs should be revised or rejected…’?On what grounds might a foundationalist morality be conservative? On what grounds might it •^ not be conservative?For what reasons must a moral theory be (i) consistent and (ii) complete? •^15

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Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – ImplicationsWhat do you think is meant by ‘moral intuition’? Why should moral philosophers be •^ interested in ‘identifying and assessing the intuitions with which we begin’?What problems for foundationalism does the role of intuition pose? •^ •^ For what reasons will intuitions play different roles in foundationalist and coherentisttheories? The role of examples (pages 139–40) Suggest an instance (other than one given) of how Kant’s categorical imperative might be •^ tested by use of examples.Explain the four different types of examples identified by O’Neill (as outlined in the passage). •^ •^ Give instances of literary examples and ostensive examples. Do you think ostensiveexamples are always superior?Explain the difference between imaginary and hypothetical examples. •^ What are the advantages and disadvantages of these different types of examples? •^ •^ Give an instance of both types of examples and identify their strengths and weaknesses.What implications may arise from using imaginary examples to illustrate the claims of moral •^ theories?Why do you think hypothetical examples are necessary for moral reasoning? •^ •^ What implications arise from the claim that ‘real life is open to different descriptions andinterpretations’?How effective do you find Tooley’s cat example? Explain your reasoning. Attempt an •^ alternative example which you find more persuasive.Do you think Jamieson is right to say that the cat example forces us into unnecessary •^ speculation which goes beyond the purpose of the example? 16

Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – Implications D. Jamieson: ‘Method and moral theory’ – Worksheet Explain the key points of the following paragraphs.^ Introduction^ The nature of moraltheories^ The dominant conception^ The anti-theorists 18

Edexcel A2 Religious Studies: Unit 4 – Implications Reconciling theory andpractice The methods oftheorizing Foundationalism Coherentism 19