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ELE230 Electronics I
http://www.ee.hacettepe.edu.tr/
usezen/ele230/
Dr. Umut Sezen & Dr. Dinçer Gökcen
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Hacettepe University
Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 1 / 54
Course Contents
I
Semiconductor Diodes and Diode Applications
I
DC and AC Analysis of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs)
I
DC and AC Analysis of Field Eect Transistors (FETs)
I
Small-Signal Analysis of BJT and FET Ampliers
I
Frequency Response of BJT and FET Ampliers
I
Multistage Ampliers
Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 2 / 54
Textbook
Textbooks:
1. Boylestad and Nashelsky,
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory
,
Prentice Hall, 8th ed.
2. Sedra and Smith,
Microelectronic Circuits
, Oxford Press, 2009 (6th ed.)
Supplementary books:
1. Millman and Halkias,
Integrated Electronics
, McGraw-Hill.
2. Horowitz and Hill,
The Art of Electronics
, Cambridge, 3rd ed.
Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 3 / 54
Semiconductor Diodes
Contents
Semiconductor Diodes
Semiconductor Diodes
Ideal Diode Model
p
-
n
Junction Diodes
No Bias Condition
Reverse Bias Condition
Forward Bias Condition
Diode Characteristic Equation
Zener Region (or Avalanche Breakdown Region)
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) Rating
Forward Bias Turn-On Voltage (
VD(ON)
)
Temperature Eects
Load Line and Operating Point (
Q
-point)
DC Resistance (Static Resistance)
AC Resistance (Dynamic Resistance)
DC and AC Analysis
Average AC Resistance
Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit
Simplied Diode Model
Diode Specication Sheets
Semiconductor Notation
Capacitance
Other Types of Diodes
Zener Diode
Light Emitting Diode (LED)
Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 4 / 54
Semiconductor Diodes Semiconductor Diodes
Semiconductor Diodes
Diode is a nonlinear two-terminal device whose circuit symbol is like an arrowhead
shown below.
I
Voltage across the diode,
VD
, is normally dened as the voltage dierence between
back end of the arrowhead and front end of the arrowhead (voltage dierence
between terminal
A
and terminal
B
), i.e.,
VD=VAVB
.
I
Current through the diode,
ID
, is dened in the direction of the arrowhead
(owing from terminal
A
to terminal
B
), i.e.,
ID=IAB
.
I
Diode is called
forward biased
(FB) when
VAVB
, i.e.,
VD0
, and called
reverse biased
(RB) when
VA< VB
, i.e.,
VD<0
.
Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 5 / 54
Semiconductor Diodes Ideal Diode Model
Ideal Diode Model
Ideally diode conducts current in only one direction and blocks current in the opposite
direction. Thus,
I
Ideal diode is
short circuit
(i.e., ON) when it is
forward biased
.
and
open circuit
(i.e., OFF) when it is
reverse biased
.
Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 6 / 54
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9

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Download Diodes lectures notes and more Lecture notes Electronics engineering in PDF only on Docsity!

ELE230 Electronics I

http://www.ee.hacettepe.edu.tr/∼usezen/ele230/

Dr. Umut Sezen & Dr. Dinçer Gökcen

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Hacettepe University

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 1 / 54

Course Contents

I (^) Semiconductor Diodes and Diode Applications I (^) DC and AC Analysis of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJTs) I (^) DC and AC Analysis of Field Eect Transistors (FETs) I (^) Small-Signal Analysis of BJT and FET Ampliers I (^) Frequency Response of BJT and FET Ampliers I (^) Multistage Ampliers

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 2 / 54

Textbook

Textbooks:

  1. Boylestad and Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory , Prentice Hall, 8th ed.
  2. Sedra and Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, Oxford Press, 2009 (6th ed.)

Supplementary books:

  1. Millman and Halkias, Integrated Electronics, McGraw-Hill.
  2. Horowitz and Hill, The Art of Electronics, Cambridge, 3rd ed.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 3 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Contents Semiconductor Diodes Semiconductor Diodes Ideal Diode Model p-n Junction Diodes No Bias Condition Reverse Bias Condition Forward Bias Condition Diode Characteristic Equation Zener Region (or Avalanche Breakdown Region) Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) Rating Forward Bias Turn-On Voltage (VD(ON )) Temperature Eects Load Line and Operating Point (Q-point) DC Resistance (Static Resistance) AC Resistance (Dynamic Resistance) DC and AC Analysis Average AC Resistance Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit Simplied Diode Model Diode Specication Sheets Semiconductor Notation Capacitance Other Types of Diodes Zener Diode Light Emitting Diode (LED) Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 4 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Semiconductor Diodes

Semiconductor Diodes

Diode is a nonlinear two-terminal device whose circuit symbol is like an arrowhead shown below.

I (^) Voltage across the diode, VD , is normally dened as the voltage dierence between back end of the arrowhead and front end of the arrowhead (voltage dierence between terminal A and terminal B), i.e., VD = VA − VB.

I (^) Current through the diode, ID , is dened in the direction of the arrowhead (owing from terminal A to terminal B), i.e., ID = IAB.

I (^) Diode is called forward biased (FB) when VA ≥ VB , i.e., VD ≥ 0 , and called reverse biased (RB) when VA < VB , i.e., VD < 0.

Semiconductor Diodes Ideal Diode Model

Ideal Diode Model

Ideally diode conducts current in only one direction and blocks current in the opposite direction. Thus,

I (^) Ideal diode is short circuit (i.e., ON) when it is forward biased.

and open circuit (i.e., OFF) when it is reverse biased.

Semiconductor Diodes Ideal Diode Model

Consequently, characteristics curve of the ideal diode is given by

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 7 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Ideal Diode Model

Ideal Diode Summary

Diode state =

ON, if VD ≥ 0 OF F, if VD < 0

Ideal Diode Model State Circuit Behaviour Test Condition ON VD = 0 ID ≥ 0

OFF ID = 0 VD < 0

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 8 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Ideal Diode Model

If you make a wrong assumption about the state of the diode, then you will nd that the test condition will fail (once you calculate the circuit voltage and currents). I (^) For example, if you have assumed the diode to be ON while it should be OFF, then you will nd ID < 0 , failing the test condition. I (^) Similarly, if you have assumed the diode to be OFF while it should be ON, then you will nd VD ≥ 0 , failing the test condition.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 9 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Ideal Diode Model

Example 1: Consider the circuit below and nd ID and VD. Assume the diode is ideal.

Solution: First we need to determine the state of the ideal diode (i.e., ON or OFF). So, let us write down the KVL equation and obtain VD

VD = 5 − 5 ID

As it is seen from the equation above, VD ≥ 0. So, the diode is ON. Thus,

VD = 0 V... from circuit behaviour

ID = 5 − VD 5 = 5 − 0 5 = 1 A.

We see that test condition ID ≥ 0 is satised, so our solution is correct.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 10 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Ideal Diode Model

Assume we made a mistake and assumed the diode is OFF. Then, we would nd that

ID = 0 A... from circuit behaviour VD = 5 − 5 ID = 5 − (5)(0) = 5 V.

We see that the test condition VD < 0 fails. That means our assumption is wrong, i.e., diode is not OFF, it is ON.

Then, we go back and correct our assumption and take the diode is ON and perform the appropriate steps (as we did in the correct solution) and nd the correct result as VD = 0 V and ID = 5 A.

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

p-n Junction

In an n-type semiconductor, majority carriers are electrons and minority carriers are holes.

Similarly, in a p-type semiconductor, majority carriers are holes and minority carriers are electrons. When we join n-type and p-type semiconductors (Silicon or Germanium) together, we obtain a p-n junction as shown below.

Current formed due to the movement of majority carriers across the junction is called the majority carrier current, Imajority. Similarly, current formed due to the movement of minority carriers across the junction is called the minority carrier current, Is. Note that, minority carrier and majority carrier currents ow in opposite directions.

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

I (^) Forward bias circuit behaviour is also shown below

I (^) Thus, diode current ID under forward bias is given by

ID = Imajority − Is.

I (^) Normally Imajority  Is, so diode current ID under forward bias is approximately equal to the majority carrier current, i.e.,

ID ≈ Imajority.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 19 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

Diode Characteristic Equation

Empirically obtained diode characteristics curve covering all three operating conditions is shown below

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 20 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

I (^) Diode characteristic equation (also known as the Shockley diode equation) describing the diode characteristics curve is given below

ID = Is

eVD^ /γ^ − 1

where γ, sometimes expressed as VT , is the thermal voltage given by

γ = kT q

with k, q and T being the Boltzman constant, the charge of an electron and temperature in Kelvins, respectively. Note that, kq is constant given by

k q

= η 8. 6173 × 10 −^5 V/K

where η = 1 for Ge and η = 2 for Si for relatively low levels of diode current (at or below the knee of the curve) and η = 1 for Ge and Si for higher levels of diode current (in the rapidly increasing section of the curve). We can safely assume η = 1 for most cases.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 21 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

I (^) Under forward bias, diode characteristic equation simplies (as eVD /γ^  1 ) to the simplied forward bias diode equation below

ID ≈ IseVD^ /γ I (^) Under reverse bias, diode characteristic equation simplies (as eVD^ /γ^  1 ) to the following ID ≈ −Is I (^) Note that, γ only depends on the temperature (expressed in Kelvin units).

So, thermal voltage γ at room temperature T = 300 K (i.e., T = 27 ◦C) is given by

γ = γ |T =300 K = 26 mV.

If we take the room temperature as T = 25 ◦C, then thermal voltage becomes

γ |T =298 K = 25 mV.

NOTE: Temperature in Kelvin (T ) is obtained from the temperature in Celsius (TC ) as follows T = TC + 273

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 22 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

Zener Region (or Avalanche Breakdown Region)

As the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias region, the velocity of the minority carriers responsible for the reverse saturation current Is will also increase. Eventually, their velocity and associated kinetic energy will be sucient to release additional carriers (i.e., avalanche eect) through collisions with otherwise stable atomic structures. That is, an ionization process will result whereby valence electrons absorb sucient energy to leave the parent atom. These additional carriers can then aid the ionization process to the point where a high avalanche current is established and the avalanche breakdown region determined.

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

The avalanche region (VZ ) can be brought closer to the vertical axis by increasing the doping levels in the p- and n-type materials. However, as VZ decreases to very low levels, such as 5 V, another mechanism, called Zener breakdown, will contribute to the sharp change in the characteristic. It occurs because there is a strong electric eld in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces within the atom and generate carriers generally via tunnelling (sometimes called as tunnelling breakdown) of the majority carriers under reverse-bias electric eld when the valence band of the highly doped p-region is aligned with the conduction band of the highly doped n-region. Although the Zener breakdown mechanism is a signicant contributor only at lower levels of VZ , this sharp change in the characteristic at any level is called the Zener region and diodes employing this unique portion of the characteristic of a p-n junction are called Zener diodes.

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) Rating

Avalanche breakdown region of the semiconductor diode must be avoided if the diode is supposed to work as an ON and OFF device. The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before entering the avalanche breakdown region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred to simply as the PIV rating ) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted by PRV rating).

If an application requires a PIV rating greater than that of a single unit, a number of diodes of the same characteristics can be connected in series. Similarly, diodes can be also connected in parallel to increase the current-carrying capacity.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 25 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

Forward Bias Turn-On Voltage (VD(ON ))

The point at which the diode changes from No Bias condition to Forward Bias condition happens when the electron and holes are given sucient energy to cross the p-n junction. This energy comes from the external voltage applied across the diode.

This voltage (can be deduced from the diode characteristics curve) is called the turn-on voltage or the threshold voltage, and denoted by VD(ON ) (VT or V 0 notations are also used).

The forward bias voltage required to turn on the diode for a

ˆ Silicon diode: VD(ON ) = 0. 7 V

ˆ Germanium diode: VD(ON ) = 0. 3 V

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 26 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

Temperature Eects

I (^) As temperature increases it adds energy to the diode. From the gure above, as temperature increases

ˆ It reduces the required turn-on voltage (VD(ON )) in forward bias condition, ˆ It increases the amount of reverse saturation current (Is) in reverse bias condition, ˆ (^) It increases the avalanche breakdown voltage in reverse bias condition.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.)^ I^ Germanium diodes are more sensitive to temperature variations than Silicon diodes. ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 27 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

Load Line and Operating Point (Q-point)

From the gure on the left above, we obtain

VD = E − ID R I We can rearrange the circuit equation above to get ID on the left-hand side of the equation, i.e.,

ID =

R

VD +

E

R

I (^) This equation obtained from the diode circuit is called the load line equation.

The load line equation gives us all the possible current (ID ) values for all the possible voltage (VD ) values obtained across the diode in a given circuit.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 28 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

I (^) Once we draw the load line over the diode characteristics curve given in the gure on the right in the previous slide, and the intersection point will give us the solution (IDQ, VDQ) of the diode current and diode voltages ID and VD for the given circuit, respectively. The result is shown below.

I (^) This plot is called the load line plot. Also, the intersection point of the load line and the diode characteristics curve is called the operating point or the Q-point specied by the (IDQ, VDQ) pair. Note that Q stands for quiescent (i.e., still). I (^) For some examples, see Examples 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3 in the Boylestad and Nashelsky textbook (8th ed.).

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

A load line plot like the gure in the previous slide is actually the graphical way of solving the diode characteristics equation

ID = IS

e VD /γ − 1

and the electrical circuit equation, i.e., load line equation

ID = −

VD

R

E

R

simultaneously. Load line plots are very practical and more ecient than solving these two equations analytically.

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

I We obtain small signal AC analysis circuit by killing the DC sources as shown below

I (^) In AC analysis, diode is replaced by its dynamic resistance rd and we can nd id(t) and vd(t) as follows

id(t) = vac(t) R + rd vd(t) = rd R + rd vac(t).

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 37 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes p-n Junction Diodes

Average AC Resistance

I (^) Average AC resistance can be determined by picking two points on the characteristic curve developed for a particular circuit where the voltage and current variations (i.e., ∆Vd and ∆Id) are large. It is used to develop the piecewise-linear equivalent circuit of the diode. I (^) Thus, the average AC resistance rav is calculated as

rav = ∆VD ∆ID (point-to-point)

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 38 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit

I (^) Piecewise-linear approximation of the diode characteristics curve is obtained and depicted as the blue lines on the left of the gure above.

I (^) Similarly, obtained piecewise-linear equivalent circuit is shown on the right of the gure above.

I (^) Here, rav is the forward bias average AC resistance (i.e., internal resistance) of the diode.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 39 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Simplied Diode Model

Simplied Diode Model

I (^) Simplied diode characteristics curve is obtained and shown on the left of the gure above.

I (^) Similarly, obtained simplied equivalent circuit is shown on the right of the gure above.

Diode state =

{ ON, if VD ≥ VD(ON ) OF F, if VD < VD(ON )

Simplied Diode Model State Circuit Behaviour Test Condition ON VD = VD(ON ) ID ≥ 0 OFF ID = 0 VD < VD(ON )

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 40 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Simplied Diode Model

I (^) For the ideal diode model, the turn-on voltage is zero, i.e., VD(ON ) = 0 V.

In this course, we will mostly use the simplied diode model unless otherwise stated.

Semiconductor Diodes Simplied Diode Model

Example 2: Consider the circuit below and nd ID and VD with VD(ON ) = 0. 7 V and E > 0. 7 V.

Solution: First we need to determine the state of the diode (i.e., ON or OFF). So, let us write down the KVL equation and obtain VD

VD = E − ID R

As it is seen from the equation above, VD ≥ VD(ON ). So, the diode is ON. Thus,

VD = VD(ON ) = 0. 7 V... from circuit behaviour

ID = E − VD R = E − 0. 7 R VR = E − VD = E − 0. 7

Semiconductor Diodes Simplied Diode Model

As E > 0. 7 V is given, we see that test condition ID ≥ 0 is satised. So, our solution is correct.

Thus, our diode circuit is simplied to the circuit shown below

Note that IR = ID.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 43 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Simplied Diode Model

Example 3: Consider the circuit below and nd ID and VD with VD(ON ) = 0. 7 V and E > 0. 7 V.

Solution: First we need to determine the state of the diode (i.e., ON or OFF). So, let us write down the KVL equation and obtain VD

VD = −E − ID R

As it is seen from the equation above, VD < VD(ON ). So, the diode is OFF. Thus,

ID = 0 A... from circuit behaviour VD = −E − ID R = −E VR = −ID R = 0 V

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 44 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Simplied Diode Model

As E > 0. 7 V is given, we see that test condition VD < 0 is satised. So, our solution is correct.

Thus, our diode circuit is simplied to the circuit shown below

Note that IR = −ID = 0 A.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 45 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Simplied Diode Model

Example 4: Consider the circuit below and nd I 1 , Vo, ID 1 and ID 2 with VD(ON ) = 0. 7 V and D 1 ≡ D 2.

Solution: First we need to determine the state of the diodes (i.e., ON or OFF). As the diodes are parallel, we let us make the following denitions

VD = VD 1 = VD 2 ID = ID 1 + ID 2 = I 1 So, let us write down the KVL equation and obtain VD

VD = E − ID R = 10 − 0. 33 k ID

As it is seen from the equation above, VD ≥ VD(ON ). So, both diodes are ON.

Dr. U. Sezen & Dr. D. Gökçen (Hacettepe Uni.) ELE230 Electronics I 15-Feb-2017 46 / 54

Semiconductor Diodes Simplied Diode Model

Thus,

VD 1 = VD(ON ) = 0. 7 V... from circuit behaviour VD 2 = VD(ON ) = 0. 7 V... from circuit behaviour Vo = VD = 0. 7 V

I 1 = E − VD R

= 10 − 0. 7

  1. 33 k

= 28. 18 mA

ID 1 = ID 2 = I 1 2 = 14. 09 mA... as D 1 ≡ D 2

Exercise: What will happen if D 2 is replaced by a Germanium diode?

Semiconductor Diodes Diode Specication Sheets

Diode Specication Sheets

Data about a diode is presented uniformly for many dierent diodes. This makes cross-matching of diodes for replacement or design easier.

Some of the key elements is listed below:

  1. VF : forward voltage at a specic current and temperature
  2. IF : maximum forward current at a specic temperature
  3. IR: maximum reverse current at a specic temperature
  4. PIV or PRV or VBR: maximum reverse voltage at a specic temperature
  5. Power Dissipation: maximum power dissipated at a specic temperature
  6. C: Capacitance levels in reverse bias
  7. trr : reverse recovery time
  8. Temperatures: operating and storage temperature ranges