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TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES FOR DATA COLLECTION
Data collection Data collection is an important step in social research. It is also known as field work. It involves administrating the research tools to gather data. It connects link to the reality of the work for the researchers. Data collection consists of taking ordered information from reality and transferring to some recording systems so that social behavior can be understood and predicted. It is based on research design.
Data Data are observations and evidence regarding some aspects of the problems/issue under study. According to John Geltang : “A datum is what is observed, in manifest or phonotypical”. Data provide information for decision making. Information reduces uncertainties in a decision making.
Types of data Nearly endless varieties of data existence can be obtained but only few types are relevant to each research study. They can be classified on the basis source, quantification, function and others. By nature of data, there are two types of data: facts and opinion.
Facts Facts describes tangible things. They measure anything that actually exists or can exist. Facts then described as things done or a piece of information having objectives reality. Facts can be intangible as long as they can really be determined. Examples of facts: •The distance between Dharan and Biratnagar is 42 km •We have 8 planets The information presented in the above example give us the accurate picture of the distance and the number of planets respectively. However, the data based on estimates or on samples may not be reliable facts.
Opinion Opinions are how people perceive something. They are what people believe about something and what whose beliefs signify. They are the results of people attitudes, intensions, knowledge and motives. These all reflects people perception about matter. It can be an attitude or image. Attitudes are mental sets or predispositions to some manner. An image is what something is like.
Examples of opinion: I believe there is life on Mars.
Importance of data collection
•Data collection completely fulfills the data requirements of a research project. It is the connecting link for the researchers to the world of reality. •It provides the sources of comparative data by which data can be interpreted and evaluated against each other. Based on the data collection, data are presented and analyzed. •It suggests the type and method of data for meeting the information needed. Several data collection methods are used to collect several types of data. •It serves as a source of future reference and evidence because they are used to prepare written records. They can now provide lots of material for the subsequent research. •It helps to takes ordered information from reality and transferring into some recording system so that it can be later examined and analyzed. It is from that pattern that social behavior can be predicted.
Sources of data collection Data may be collected from several sources. It is not easy to list them in details. Researchers use these sources according to their data needs. However, the general classification of data collection sources can be presented under two groups:
Primary sources It provides primary data. Primary data are first hand, original data collected by the researchers for the research project by hand. They are collected for meeting the specific objectives of the study. They can be obtained from families, representatives, organization, etc. interviews, questionnaire, observation are the major tools for collecting data from primary sources.
Secondary sources It provides secondary data. Secondary data are already gathered by others. They are attained indirectly. The researcher doesn’t obtain them directly. They are collected by some other researchers before and have been processed at least once.
Types of secondary data
Internal secondary data
Ad Hoc survey : It is conducted for certain purpose and is undertaken once for all. Mostly, it is conducted for testing hypothesis, getting missing or new information.
Primary survey : It is conducted in order to acquire directly the relevant facts and information. It is more reliable than secondary survey.
Secondary survey : It is conducted after the primary survey has been completed.
Official survey: It is conducted by government to serve general or specific information for formulating plans and policies.
Non official survey: It is conducted by non-government persons or agency.
First survey: It is conducted in area for the first time.
Repetitive survey: It is conducted subsequent to first survey. It is made for second or third time and so on.
Open survey: It is also called public survey. The repetitive survey is publicly available. It is of general importance.
Confidential survey: The result of the survey is not made public. Information is not revealed to the common people.
Social survey: It is conducted to collect facts about the social aspects of a community’s position and activities.
Public opinion: It is conduced to know the views of the people in any subjects like legalized abortion, open prostitution, homosexual activities etc.
Interview
It is a technique of primary data collection. It is an oral method in which one person asks another person questions designed to obtain answer pertinent to the research problem. It is most commonly used direct method in the study of human behavior. The interview is a face to face interpersonal role situation in which one person asks another person being interviewed. The respondent question designed to obtain answer pertinent to the purpose of the research problem. The interview may be regarded as a systematic method by which one person enters more or less imaginatively with the inner life of another who is generally a comparative stranger to him.
The purpose of interview is to find out what’s in or on someone else’s mind.
According to Kerlinger “The interview is a face to face interpersonal role situation in which one person, the interviewer, asks a person being interviewed, the respondent, questions designed to obtain answers pertinent to the purpose of the research problem.”
Research interview schedule Interviewing itself is an art. But planning and writing an interview schedule is even more or so. The research interview schedule is a guideline which the interviewer follows indicating which question should be asked. As interviewer asks the question, s/he records the response. A good interviewer will let the respondent do most of talking.
Formats or research interview schedule There are three formats of interview schedule providing 3 kinds of information. They are:
Fixed – alternative item interview
Ordinary no schedule is used. They don’t mean that unstructured interview is casual. The interviewer will have a tentative list of question to be covered during the interview.
Questionnaire A questionnaire is a format list of questions designed to gather respondent from respondent on a given topic. It is a formalized schedule for data collection. It is used when fractional information is designed. When opinion rather than facts are desired, opinionnaire or attitude scale is used. Questionnaire is a term used for almost any kind of instrument that has questions or items to which individuals respond. A questionnaire is a list of questions to number of persons for them to answer. It secures standardized results that can be tabulated created statistically.
Type of questionnaire
Open or open-ended question: It calls for free response in the respondent’s own words. It requires the respondents to provide their own answer to the question. No alternative answer is given.
Close or close-ended question: It is also called restricted questionnaire. It offers the respondent choice among two or more alternatives. Answer to each question is predetermined and included in the question form. The respondents mark yes or no or write a short response or check an item form the list of suggest response.
Types of close- questionnaire
Dichotomous questionnaire: It offers only two alternatives; positive and negative. The response would be yes or no; agree or disagree; and so on. It is also known as two way questionnaire.
Multi chotomous questionnaire: It is also called multiple choice questionnaires.
Questionnaire Design
A questionnaire is designed to collect right type of primary data of right quality. The design of questionnaire is more than art from than a scientific undertaking. Questionnaire design comes from the experience of the researchers who specialized in this area. The only way to develop this skill is to write a questionnaire, use it in a series of interviews, analyze its weakness and revise it.
There are no series of step, principle or guidelines with guarantee on effective and efficient questionnaire. An effective questionnaire is one that
- Draws out accurate information
- Cab be completed easily by interviewers
- Flow well
- Leaves the respondent feel satisfied for their worth while participation in the research
There are series of seven steps in questionnaire design as started below: 1.Review of preliminary considerations It involves the review or research objectives and the listing of information needs. Decision regarding questionnaire design must built upon and be consistent with decision relation to other aspect of the research project previous decision regarding the type of research design and the source of data directly influence the character and role of the questionnaire in the research project. The questions on the questionnaire should flow logically from the list if information needs as well as a clear definition of the respondent group. Questionnaire is the device between information needed and the data to be collected.
2.Decision and question content Once the preliminary consideration is reviewed the researcher is now ready to begin formulating the questionnaire. This stage decides what to include in individual questions. The contents of the question are influenced by the respondent’s ability and willingness to respond accurately. Many types of data cannot be collected that result in inaccurate data. This is due to respondent being uniformed (they have no idea about the topic) or they are forgotten. Similarly, the respondents are unwilling to respond accurately because of three reasons:
•The situation is not appropriate for disclosing data •Disclosure of data would be embarrassing •Disclosure is a potential threat to the respondent’s prestige
Before the questionnaire is ready for field operation, it needs to be pretested and revised. Pretesting refers to initial testing of one or more aspect of the questionnaire design. Most questionnaire design requires at least one pretest and revision before they are ready for field operation. Pretests are best done by personnel interview even the survey is to be traveled by mail or telephone. The number of people is interviewed in the pretest can range from 15 to
- When significant change is made in the questionnaire another pretest should be conducted. If the pretest result suggests minor changes, the questionnaire is ready for the final draft and distribution to the field operators.
Merits of questionnaire
- √It is versatile. Almost every problem of social research can be approached from the questionnaire stand point. Every social problem involves people. Therefore, ideas relative to the problem and solution can be obtained by asking these people about the problem
- √Many people can be studied only by questioning. Knowledge, opinions, motivation, and intentions are usually not open to observation. Similarly, it is not feasible to observe personnel activities such as burning teeth. So, it is feasible.
- √Questioning is usually faster and efficient than observation. Some events that take place over a time period would require lengthy observation, but a question on this behavior can be answered in a few seconds.
- √It is cheaper then observing. The researcher has not to stand time to observe the behavior of the respondent. A decrease in time usually lead to decrease in cost.
- √The person administrating the questionnaire has an opportunity to establish report, explain the purpose of the study and explain the meaning of items that may not be clear.
Other advantages
- √Facilitates the study of larger population
- √Early receipt of information is possible
- √Provides valid information
- √It is self-administrative
Disadvantages of questionnaire
- Respondents would be unwilling to provide information. Questions about income or very personnel subject frequently meet refusal by respondent. The show little or no interest to the question.
- Despite a willingness to cooperate, many people are unable to give accurate information of questions.
- There can be influence on questioning process. Often respondent attempt to give answers that they think will please the researchers.
- Filling out lengthy questions take a great deal of time and money.
Other disadvantages
- 0 09 9It cannot be used in illiterate person.
- 0 09 9Incomplete responses are possible
- 0 09 9There is a possibility of wrong answer
- 0 09 9Useless in depth problem
- 0 09 9Uniform questions are not applicable to other people of different ethnicity, culture etc.
Case study A case study refers to specific unit of analysis for the study. The unit may be a person, family, a social group, a social institution or committees. A case study involves intensive study of a relative small number of situations. It views a social unit as a whole. It places more emphasis on the full analysis of limited number of events or conditions another behavior. It is a longitudinal approach so in development over a period of time the case study processes deeply and analyses interactions between the factors that explain present status or that influences change or growth. The purpose is to understand life cycle or an important part of life cycle of the unit. Case study is the method of exploring and analyzing the life of social unit, be that unit a person, a family, institution, culture, group or even entire community. Characteristics of Case Study
- More accurate data are obtained.
- Case study is particularly useful as background information for planning major investigations in the social sciences.
- It is source of important hypothesis.
- The researcher gains many new insights into human behavior and becomes emotionally mature.
Limitations of case study
- Since case study gives detailed description of complete situations, it is difficult to develop formal method of observation and recording. Informal method tends to become subjective rather than objective.
- Lack of objectivity carries out into the analysis case data. This may lead to unwanted conclusions.
- In analyzing cases, investigators are inclined to generalize although the case study method does not lend itself to generalization. Case studies are limited in their representatives because of their narrow focus on a few units.
- It is highly expensive and time taking.
- It lacks sample method.
Observation
It is a method of gathering primary data physically or mechanically recording events or aspect of the phenomenon under investigation. It involves recording of the respondents’ behavior. It is the process of recognizing noting people, objects and occurrence of events rather than asking for information. It can supplement the information collected through questionnaire and interview.
Observation is the process of recognizing and recording behavior of people, objects and events. Observation is systematic and deliberate study through eye, of spontaneous occurrence at the time they occur. Example: instead of asking consumer what brand they buy or what television program they watch, the researcher arrange to observe what product are brought and what program they watch.
Characteristics of good observations
- Observation should be carefully planned, systematic and perceptive. Observers should know what they are looking for and what is irrelevant in a situation.
- It should focus on wholeness of what is observed. Observers should not only be alert to significant details, they should also know that the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts.
- It should be objective and bias-free. Observers should strive to eliminate their influence what see and report.
- (^) It should separate the facts from the interpretation of facts. Observers observe the facts and make their interpretation at a later time.
- It should be checked and verified whenever possible by repetition or by comparison with those of other competent observers.
- It should be carefully and expertly recorded. Observers use appropriate instruments to systematize, qualify and preserve the result of their observations.
- Observations are collected in such a way that they are valid and reliable.
Validity of observation Validity is that trial or quality of a data gathering procedure that enables to measure what it supposed to measure. Validity generally results from careful planning of observation. For the researchers observation to achieve a satisfactory degree of validity. Observation should achieve content, criterion-related and construct validity. To achieve a satisfactory degree of content validity, the researcher should identify and sample truly significant incidents of behavior. For this, a subjective judgment of expert in the field may be taken. The experts help in selecting a limited number of observable incidents whose relationship to the qualities of interest is based upon should established theory.
Criterion-related and construct validity are also headed in observation. They depend upon purpose of the study and inference made regarding behavior. For instance, if certain behavior were considered to be evidence of persons being shy, construct validity is needed to demonstrate a relationship between the behavior and the underlying content. Criterion related validity can be used when researcher wants to predict behavior from observing any action of the respondent.
ExcellentII Good Average Below Poor average AlwaysIII Frequently Occasionally Rarely Never
Scale specimen It provides a method for evaluating certain observed level of performance or measure of a quality in question. It is not frequently encountered in behavioral measures
Analysis and presentation of data Analysis of data Analysis means categorizing, ordering, manipulating, and summarizing of data to obtain answers to research questions. The purpose of analysis is to reduce data to intelligible and interpretable form so that the relations of research problems can be studied and tested.
Method of data analysis Descriptive analysis: It limits generalization to the particular group of individuals observed. No conclusions are extended beyond this group and any similarity to those outside the group cannot be assumed. The data describes one group and that group only. It provides valuable information about the nature of particular group of individuals.
Inferential analysis: It is also called logical or statistical analysis. It is probably based. It always involves the process of sampling and the selection of a small group that is assumed to be related to the population from which it is drawn. The small group is called the sample and the large group is the population. Presentation of data: The presentation of data is the basic organization and classification of the data for analysis. After data collection is completed, the data will be in the raw form. It is necessary to arrange the data so that it makes some sense to researchers as well to the readers. Different types of data require different methods of summary and presentation. Data are presented in charts, graphs and tables.
