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cognitive neuroscience a brief explanation of the informed consent that has been taken from the participants. In 1983, Russell Targ and Keith Harary decided to apply the ARV technique to predicting the prices of silver futures. The idea was to generate capital for their research on paranormal phenomena. Since funding for this sort of research is very hard to obtain, they reasoned, why not generate their own? They also felt that if this technique could be shown to work, then others would apply it and more understanding would result. Their first attempt was very successful.3 Their second attempt, however, was not.4
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Question 1. Methods of cognitive neuroscience. (a) Briefly describe the two principle approaches for linking cognitive functioning to neuronal processes. Name one example method for each of the two. (b) Electroencephalography (EEG) is a frequently used method in cognitive neuroscience. What principle neurophysiological aspects of the brain response is it measuring? What are event-related potentials (ERPs) and how are they obtained from EEG measures. (c) For what kind of research question would EEG/ERP measures be preferred over functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)? Question 2: Attention and its effects (a) In general terms, how does the brain’s response differ between an attended and a non-attended stimulus? Give one example. (b) How is non-spatial/feature-based attention reflected in brain response? Give one example. (c) The perceptual load theory assumes that task-irrelevant stimuli are only processed if task-related processing is not too demanding. Describe OR design an experiment, which demonstrates this effect on brain activation (e.g., measured with fMRI). Include a brief prediction of the to-be-expected findings. Question 3: Memory - Varieties and Mechanisms (a) Give a definition of priming. (b) What is the difference between direct and indirect priming. Give each one example for direct and indirect priming. (c) Assume you would conduct an fMRI picture naming experiment in which all pictures are shown twice. How would you expect the brain response to change from the first to the second presentation? What is this effect called? Briefly describe a theory explaining why this effect occurs. Question 4: Declarative memory (a) Give a brief description of the three general phases of memory functioning. (b) Memory consolidation is thought to proceed via two distinct but complementary processes in the brain. Define and explain these two processes. (c) Explain the cognitive map theory of hippocampal memory function. What evidence is there to support it? How does relational memory theory expand upon it?
less activation of the areas related to the peripheral stimulation, as attentional resources are “bound” by the central task [3p] Question 3: Memory - Varieties and Mechanisms (a) Give a definition of priming. (b) What is the difference between direct and indirect priming. Give each one example for direct and indirect priming. (c) Assume you would conduct an fMRI picture naming experiment in which all pictures are shown twice. How would you expect the brain response to change from the first to the second presentation? What is this effect called? Briefly describe a theory explaining why this effect occurs. Key points to be addressed in answer: (a) Benefit in processing based on previous stimulation with same/related stimulus, in the absence of conscious awareness (p. 252) [only 1 point if “awareness”/non-declarative memory mentioned, otherwise max 0.5] (b) Direct – repetition priming, “prime” and “target” are identical (perceptual/conceptual priming) example: brief exposure to word “envelope” will increase the likelihood to detect the word in “e_v_l_p_o”; indirect: prime and target are different as in semantic priming (p. 252-258)[ each 1 p = max 2p] (c) reduced BOLD response in fMRI; phenomenon: “repetition suppression” [together 1p] ; “Sharpening theory”: neurons not responsible for stimulus respond less, while critical neurons continue to fire at same level = average activation reduced [1p] (see pages 254/255) Note: Report of “repetition enhancement”, also acceptable but creation of “new” memory trace has to be mentioned as precondition for enhancement (see p. 257/258) – [total max 2p] Question 4: Declarative memory (a) Give a brief description of the three general phases of memory functioning. (b) Memory consolidation is thought to proceed via two distinct but complementary processes in the brain. Define and explain these two processes, (c) Explain the cognitive map theory of hippocampal memory function. What evidence is there to support it? How does relational memory theory expand upon it? (a) encoding, storage, and retrieval phase + some general description (p. 283-284) [1p] (b) Synaptic consolidation : accomplished within a few minutes to hours after encoding; involves changes in gene expression, protein synthesis, and LTP; System-consolidation : occurs over long time- frames (days, weeks, years); involves large-scale changes in the organisation of neural networks supporting a memory (particularly the contribution of hippocampus) (p.312) [1p each = max 2p]. b) Cognitive map theory : hippocampus (HC) mediates memory for spatial relations between objects in the environment, and spatial representations provide the context in which episodic memories are embedded [ 1 p]. Examples of evidence: existence of HC place cells that fire when an animal is in a particular location in its environment; some evidence for place cells in humans too (relevant but not focused on in book: hippocampal activation often seen in spatial navigation tasks in humans; famous taxi-driver study etc.) [0.5p]. Relational memory theory posits that HC mediates memory for all manner of new relations in general, not only spatial [0.5p] (p.286-290) [max 2p]