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cheat sheet of mca syllabus, Exams of Computer Applications

Patliputra UniversityComputer Applications

in this document all th syllabus is described of computer

Typology: Exams

2020/2021

Uploaded on 04/27/2023

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Automata, Computability and Complexity: Theory and
Applications
Elaine Rich
Index
α-β pruning............................................................823
Ψ(L)............................................................... 235, 240
ℵ
0 ….. ...................................................................615
ω-automaton ....................................................88, 154
¬H ................................. 338, 342, 345, 365, 367, 371
¬Hε................................................................367, 380
ϕk 448
ε-loop.........................................................59, 65, 145
≤M 350
≡n …...............................................................566, 597
≤P 500
µ-recursive function.......................................442, 453
ε-rule......................................................................173
15-puzzle .................................................35, 569, 576
2-CNF........................ See 2-conjunctive normal form
2-conjunctive normal form............................523, 537
2FSMs-INTERSECT.............................................553
2-SAT ....................................................523, 537, 560
2-SAT-MAX..........................................................537
3-CNF........................ See 3-conjunctive normal form
3-conjunctive normal form ............................498, 636
3-conjunctiveBoolean ............................................636
3-SAT ....................................498, 510, 511, 523, 636
3x+1 problem.................................................331, 452
4-color problem .....................................................526
A ….. .............................................................355, 371
Aε …..............................................................356, 371
A* algorithm..................570, 576, 578, 708, 794, 826
AALL ...............................................................356, 371
Aanbn .......................................................................371
AANY ..............................................................356, 371
Aaronson, Scott .....................................................577
abacus ....................................................................836
absorption laws..............................................582, 605
accepting
by a deterministic TM.......................................288
by a DFSM..................................................47, 537
by a nondeterministic TM.................................299
by a PDA...........................................194, 212, 667
by an NDFSM.....................................................54
access control matrix .............................................752
Ackermann, Wilhelm.............................318, 440, 453
Ackermann’s function ...................................440, 453
active tape..............................................................280
ACT-V...................................................................809
Ada ........................................................................701
adder ......................................................................839
adjacency matrix............................................461, 592
Adleman, Leonard .........................................452, 757
admissibility
of a heuristic function ...............................573, 826
of a search algorithm.........................................574
age of universe.......................................441, 457, 838
agent
intelligent ..........................737, 794, 804, 808, 825
agreement in natural languages .............268, 417, 784
Aho, Alfred....................................................154, 276
AI See artificial intelligence
AL..........................................................................820
Alexander, Christopher............................................99
ALGOL 58.............................................................697
ALGOL 60.....................................................163, 697
Algol 68.................................................................701
algorithm..................................................31, 317, 619
algorithms
3-conjunctiveBoolean .......................................636
A* 570
atmostoneEps....................................................175
buildFSMcanonicalform .....................................74
buildgrammar ...................................................208
buildkeywordFSM.............................................112
buildunambiggrammar .....................................232
cfgtoPDAbottomup............................................203
cfgtoPDAnoeps .................................................242
cfgtoPDAtopdown.............................................202
CKY...................................................................261
computetransitiveclosure ..................................608
conjunctiveBoolean...........................................636
connected ..........................................................486
convertPDAtodetnormalform............................670
convertpdatorestricted......................................205
converttoChomsky.............................................182
converttoclauseform..........................................647
converttoGreibach ............................................663
converttononterminal........................................410
pf3
pf4
pf5
pf8
pf9
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pf13

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Automata, Computability and Complexity: Theory and

Applications

Elaine Rich

ambiguity in context-free grammars 170 , 257, 258, 384, 390,

CKY algorithm See Cocke-Kasami-Younger

context-free languages199, 221 , 226, 237, 239,

CNF ............................... See conjunctive normal form 2-CNF ................... See 2-conjunctive normal form

complement

context-free Pumping Theorem See Pumping

CYK algorithm See Cocke-Kasami-Younger

finite state automaton............. See finite state machine

first-order predicate calculus ....... See first-order logic

Gödel’s Incompleteness Theorem See Incompleteness Theorem Gödel's Completeness Theorem See Completeness

invariant

context-free .................... See context-free language context-sensitive .... See context-sensitive language decidable ......................26, See decidable language markup .................................. See markup language programming............... See programming language query ........................................ See query language

recursive............................. See recursive language recursively enumerable See recursively enumerable language regular .................................... See regular language semidecidable ...... 26, See semidecidable language type 0 ......................................See type 0 language type 1 ......................................See type 1 language type 2 ......................................See type 2 language

Lindenmayer system159, 319, 419 , 453, 815, 843,

Boolean ...................................... See Boolean logic

predicate.................................. See first-order logic

L-system .............................. See Lindenmayer system

NLP .......................... See natural language processing node cover ........................................ See vertex cover

NP-completeness459, 503 , 510, 522, 547, 578, 636,

PCP....................... See Post Correspondence Problem

Post Correspondence Problem 376 , 388, 452, 459,

primality testing6, 20, 32, 483, 491 , 499, 536, 566,

C See C C++ ........................................................... See C++ Cobol ..................................................... See Cobol Fortran ................................................. See Fortran Haskell ................................................. See Haskell IPL ............................................ See IPL languages Java ........................................................... See Java Lisp ........................................................... See Lisp

Resource Description Framework ................ See RDF Resource Description Framework Schema See RDF

route

satisfiability

Stacy, Cathy............................................................ xii

verification of programs20, 89, 364, 381, 619, 710, World Wide Webix, 27, 50, 79, 81, 727, 737 , 844,

WW25, 215 , 224, 314, 320, 322, 395, 425, 783, 813,

  • α-β pruning............................................................ Index
  • Ψ( L ) 235 ,
  • ℵ 0 ….. ...................................................................
  • ω-automaton 88 ,
  • ¬H 338 , 342, 345, 365, 367,
  • ¬Hε 367 ,
  • ϕk
  • ε-loop......................................................... 59 , 65,
  • ≤M
  • ≡ n …...............................................................566,
  • ≤P
  • μ-recursive function....................................... 442 ,
  • ε-rule......................................................................
  • 15-puzzle 35 , 569,
  • 2-conjunctive normal form ............................523, 2-CNF........................ See 2-conjunctive normal form
  • 2FSMs-INTERSECT.............................................
  • 2-SAT 523 , 537,
  • 2-SAT-MAX..........................................................
  • 3-conjunctive normal form ............................498, 3-CNF........................ See 3-conjunctive normal form
  • 3-conjunctiveBoolean ............................................
  • 3-SAT 498 , 510, 511, 523,
  • 3 x +1 problem................................................. 331 ,
  • 4-color problem .....................................................
  • A ….. 355 ,
  • Aε ….. 356 ,
  • A * algorithm 570 , 576, 578, 708, 794,
  • A ALL 356 ,
  • A anbn .......................................................................
  • A ANY 356 ,
  • Aaronson, Scott .....................................................
  • abacus ....................................................................
  • absorption laws..............................................582,
    • by a deterministic TM....................................... accepting
    • by a DFSM.................................................. 47 ,
    • by a nondeterministic TM.................................
    • by a PDA........................................... 194 , 212,
    • by an NDFSM.....................................................
  • access control matrix .............................................
  • Ackermann, Wilhelm.............................318, 440, - Ackermann’s function 440 , - active tape.............................................................. - ACT-V................................................................... - Ada ........................................................................ - adder ...................................................................... - adjacency matrix............................................461, - Adleman, Leonard .........................................452, - of a heuristic function ...............................573, admissibility - of a search algorithm......................................... - age of universe.......................................441, 457, - intelligent ..........................737, 794, 804, 808, agent - agreement in natural languages .............268, 417, - Aho, Alfred....................................................154, - AL.......................................................................... AI See artificial intelligence - Alexander, Christopher............................................ - ALGOL 58............................................................. - ALGOL 60.....................................................163, - Algol 68 ................................................................. - algorithm.................................................. 31 , 317, - 3-conjunctiveBoolean ....................................... algorithms - A * - atmostoneEps .................................................... - buildFSMcanonicalform ..................................... - buildgrammar ................................................... - buildkeywordFSM ............................................. - buildunambiggrammar ..................................... - cfgtoPDAbottomup ............................................ - cfgtoPDAnoeps ................................................. - cfgtoPDAtopdown ............................................. - CKY ................................................................... - computetransitiveclosure .................................. - conjunctiveBoolean ........................................... - connected .......................................................... - convertPDAtodetnormalform ............................ - convertpdatorestricted ...................................... - converttoChomsky ............................................. - converttoclauseform .......................................... - converttoGreibach ............................................ - converttononterminal ........................................
  • createOBDDfromtree ........................................
  • decideCFL .........................................................
  • decideCFLempty ...............................................
  • decideCFLinfinite .............................................
  • decideCFLusingGrammar ................................
  • decideCFLusingPDA ........................................
  • decideFSM ........................................................
  • decideregex .......................................................
  • dfsmsimulate .......................................................
  • disjunctiveBoolean ............................................
  • Earleyparse .......................................................
  • emptyFSM .........................................................
  • emptyFSMcanonicalgraph ................................
  • emptyFSMgraph ................................................
  • emptyFSMsimulate ............................................
  • eps .......................................................................
  • equalFSMs ........................................................
  • Eulerian ............................................................
  • finiteFSM ..........................................................
  • finiteFSMgraph .................................................
  • finiteFSMsimulate .............................................
  • first ....................................................................
  • follow ................................................................
  • forward ...............................................................
  • fsmtoregex .........................................................
  • fsmtoregexheuristic ...........................................
  • game-search ......................................................
  • game-search- α - β ..............................................
  • grammartofsm ...................................................
  • infiniteFSM .......................................................
  • intersectPDAandFSM .......................................
  • Kruskal ..............................................................
  • minDFSM ............................................................
  • minimalFSM .....................................................
  • minimax .............................................................
  • minimax with α - β pruning ................................
  • MSTdecide ........................................................
  • ndfsmconvertandsimulate ...................................
  • ndfsmsimulate .....................................................
  • ndfsmtodfsm ................................................60,
  • obtainSelf ..........................................................
  • PDAtoCFG .......................................................
  • proveFOL ..........................................................
  • QBFdecide ........................................................
  • quicksort ...................................................562,
  • regextofsm .........................................................
  • removeEps .........................................................
  • removeLong ......................................................
  • removeMixed .....................................................
  • removeUnits ......................................................
  • removeunproductive ..........................................
  • removeunreachable ...........................................
  • resolve-Boolean ................................................
  • resolve-FOL ......................................................
  • simcomputer ......................................................
  • simple-rewrite ................................................... - totalFSM ........................................................... - unify-for-resolution ........................................... - Viterbi ................................................................. - without$ ............................................................
    • alignment of protein sequences .............................
    • allele ................................................................81,
    • almost satisfiability................................................
    • alphabet .....................................................................
    • alpha-beta pruning .................................................
    • alt
    • Alternating Bit protocol.............................63, 97,
    • alternating Turing machine....................................
    • ALU.......................................................................
    • Amazons ................................................................
      • in English ..................................172, 179, 700,
      • in programming languages................172, 177,
      • in regular grammars ..........................................
      • inherent 172 ,
      • techniques for reducing.....................................
    • ambiguous attachment 177 , 179,
    • A nBn 16 , 24, 133, 231, 235, 342, 407,
      • 406, 417, 425, 459, 464, A nBnCn 25 , 28, 215, 219, 288, 323, 342, 394, 403,
    • and elimination ......................................................
    • and introduction.....................................................
    • Anderson, John R. .................................................
    • Antikythera Mechanism xii,
    • antisymmetry .........................................................
    • AP..........................................................................
    • APL ...........................................................................
    • Appel, Kenneth..............................................526,
    • approximation algorithm .......................458, 561,
    • APSPACE..............................................................
    • Archimedes............................................................
    • argmax .............................................................85,
    • ARPAbet................................................................
    • ARQ protocol ........................................................
    • artificial intelligence ..................6, 650, 708, 793 ,
    • associativity ...........................................................
    • astronomical calculator..........................................
    • astronomical clock.................................................
    • asymptotic dominance 466 , 623,
    • atmostoneEps 175 ,
    • atoms in universe ...................................153, 441, ATN....................... See augmented transition network
    • attachment ambiguity 177 , 179,
    • attribute grammar 416 , 426,
    • augmented transition network................................
    • Austin Villa ...........................................................
    • AutoCAD...............................................................
    • automatic programming...................................41,
    • automatic reasoning...............................................
    • automaton ..............................................................
  • average case performance......................................
  • Baader, Franz.........................................................
  • Bach chorales.................................................814,
  • backgammon..........................................................
  • Backus Naur form............................16, 163, 697 ,
  • Backus, John..........................................................
  • backward chaining.................................346, 797 ,
  • Baker, Robert.........................................................
    • 240, Bal24, 135 , 155, 161, 170, 175, 178, 191, 195, 213,
  • balanced delimiters ........................................190,
  • bar code 76 , Bandke, Volker....................................................... xii
  • Bar-Hillel, Yehoshua .............................154, 276,
  • Baroni, Mario ........................................................
  • Baum, Leonard E...................................................
  • Baum-Welch algorithm ...........................................
  • Bel, Bernard...........................................................
    • reasoning about .........................................795, belief
  • Bengal farmers...............................................457,
  • Bentley, Jon ...........................................................
  • Berners-Lee, Tim.............................................27,
  • best-first search......................................570, 708,
  • bidirectional finite state transducer.................. 77 ,
  • Big Bang........................................441, 457, 465,
  • big- O 466 , 624,
  • bigram model.........................................................
  • bigram tagger.........................................................
  • bijection .................................................................
  • binary adder .....................................................22,
  • binary decision tree................................................
  • binary function.......................................................
  • binary multiplier ....................................................
  • binary relation........................................................
  • binary search..........................................................
  • BIN-PACKING .............................................510,
  • bipartite graph................................................ 526 ,
  • bisection of a graph................................................
  • Bishop, Matt ..........................................................
  • Boolean expression grammar ........................191, BNF See Backus Naur form
  • Boolean logic................................................. 581 ,
    • decidability .......................................................
    • normal forms.....................................................
    • resolution ..................................................537,
  • bottom-up parser....................................202, 259 ,
  • bounded simulation................................................
  • BOUNDED-PCP ...................................378, 511,
  • boustrophedon .......................................................
  • BPP........................................................................
  • Brachman, Ronald .........................................745, - 244, branching factor of a grammar 169 , 180, 216, 233, - breadth-first search ................301, 479 , 573, 675, - Bryant, Randal....................................................... - Büchi automaton.............................. 88 , 154, 717, - Büchi, J. ................................................................. - buildFSMcanonicalform ..........................74, 146, - buildgrammar ........................................................ - buildkeywordFSM 112 , 154, 473, - buildunambiggrammar .......................................... - business rules engine .....................................806, - busy beaver function......................292, 433 , 441, - C 12, - C++................................................................177, - Cage, John ............................................................. - Camilleri, Lelio...................................................... - canonical form 74 , - for Boolean expressions..............................74, - for FSMs 74 , - Cantor, David ........................................................ - of a language....................................................... cardinality - of a set............................................................... - of the context-free languages ............................ - of the regular languages.................................... - of the SD languages .......................................... - Carmichael number................................................ - Cartesian product................................................... - causal universe............................... 153 , 335, 441, - ceiling ...................................................................... - cellular automaton .................................319, 324 , - certificate ............................................................... - CFG ALL 385 , CFG See context-free grammar - cfgtoPDAbottomup 202 , 203, - cfgtoPDAnoeps 242 , - cfgtoPDAtopdown ..................201, 202 , 242, 245, - Champandard, Alex ............................................... CFL See context-free language - Chandra, Ashok ..................................................... - characteristic function......................11, 291, 433, - chatbot ...........................................................793, chart parser See parser, chart - checkers .........................................................575, - chemical structure matching .................................. - chess 7, 503, 534, 575, 815 , - Chinese room argument......................................... - Chomsky hierarchy................154, 275, 393, 416 , - 248, 260, 275, 410, Chomsky normal form 180 , 182, 191, 222, 240, 241, - Chomsky, Noam 12, 154, 275, 416, 452, - chop 39 , 140, - CHORAL............................................................... - Christofides, Nicos ................................................ - chromatic XE "graph:chromatic number" number - chromatic number ..........................................501,
  • CHROMATIC-NUMBER.....................501, 526 ,
  • chromosome ..........................................................
  • Church, Alonzo......................318, 319, 320, 452,
  • Church-Turing thesis .....................317, 318 , 329, Church's thesis See Church-Turing thesis
    • Eulerian............................. 487 , 499, 523, 536, circuit
    • Hamiltonian 494 , 510, 515,
  • Clarke, Edmund .............................................154, algorithm
    • definite .............................................................. clause
    • Horn ..................................................................
    • in Boolean logic ........................................498,
    • in first order logic .............................................
  • clause form ....................................................585,
  • CLIQUE 494, 497 , 499, 501, 510, Cline, Alan.............................................................. xii
  • clique detection......................494, 497 , 501, 510,
    • mechanical ........................................................ clock
  • Clocksin, William F...............................................
  • closed world assumption ...............................744,
    • mathematical definition ......................40, 607 , closure
    • programming language definition.....................
    • infinite languages................................................ closure properties
    • Büchi automata 92 , closure properties of
    • context-sensitive languages 410 , 426, 453,
    • decidable languages ..................................337,
    • deterministic context-free languages 228 , 240,
    • finite languages .............................................40,
    • infinite languages................................................
    • PSPACE............................................................
    • regular languages ........................52, 129 , 139,
    • semidecidable languages...........................337,
    • space complexity classes...........................558,
    • the class BPP.....................................................
    • the class L .........................................................
    • the class NP...............................................528,
    • the class P .................................................483,
  • Cobol ..................................................................... 3-CNF See 3-conjunctive normal form
  • Cocke, J. ........................................................260,
    • 276, 477, 485, Cocke-Kasami-Younger algorithm241, 247, 260,
  • codomain of a function ..........................................
  • co-dspace ...............................................................
  • coffee can problem - co-finite language .................................................. - cognitive modeling ................................806, 808 , - cognitive psychology.............................806, 808 , - Cohn, Martin.......................................................... - co-L ....................................................................... - Colbourn, Charles.................................................. - colorless green ideas........................................ 12 , coloring............................................ See map coloring - Common Music ..................................................... - commutativity........................................................ - compiler construction 5, 172, 247, 275, 364, 372, - 528, 557, 558, closure under52, 129, 222, 228, 337, 413, 483, - of a language....................................... 14 , 330, - of sets................................................................ - complement of sets ................................................ - complementary literals ..................................639, - complementdetPDA ............................................... - complete graph ...................................................... - logical ............................................................... completeness - of a set of inference rules .................................. - with respect to a world...................................... - inference rules................................................... completeness of a set of - Completeness Theorem .........318, 382, 451, 585 , - logarithmic space .............................................. complexity - multitape Turing machines ............................... - nondeterministic Turing machines............298, - polynomial space .............................................. - polynomial time ................................................ - randomized Turing machines............................ - space 463 , - sublinear space.................................................. - time 463 , 483, - Complexity Zoo.............................................459, - COMPOSITES ..............................299, 491 , 523, - composition of functions ...................................... - composition of relations ........................................ - compositional semantics............................ 16 , 99, - compression algorithm .......................................... - computable function 291 , 319, 400, 430, 437, - of a Turing machine.......................................... computation - of an FSM ........................................................... - of an LBA ......................................................... - of an PDA ......................................................... - computation history 385 , - computational biology ...............................6, 750, - Computer Cantata ................................................. - computer game ..................................7, 570, 808, - computer network .................................................. - computetransitiveclosure .......................................
    • closure under.............................129, 221, 342,
    • of languages ........................................................
    • of strings ...............................................................
  • concept subsumption .............................................
  • concurrent systems ....................................74, 89,
  • co-ndspace .............................................................
    • of a PDA ........................................................... configuration
    • of a Turing machine..........................................
    • of an FSM ...........................................................
  • conflict resolution ..................................................
    • for Boolean logic ..............................498, 635 , conjunctive normal form
    • for first-order logic.................................... 645 ,
  • conjunctiveBoolean ...............................................
  • co-NL.....................................................................
  • CONNECTED......................... 21 , 460, 484, 485,
  • connected graph....................................... 21 , 484,
  • co-NP.............................................................528,
  • consistency ............................................................
  • context-free grammar ....................................160, construction proof............... See proof by construction
    • ambiguity 170 ,
    • correctness proof...............................................
    • designing...........................................................
    • for programming languages .............................. for English See English grammar
    • for URIs ............................................................
    • island.................................................................
    • island.................................................................
    • LL(1).................................................................
    • LR(1) ................................................................
    • normal form ......................................................
    • simplifying........................................................
    • stochastic................................... 188 , 771, 788,
  • context-free language 24, 155, 161 , 485, 699,
    • deterministic .....................201, 227 , 231, 258,
    • inherently ambiguous........................ 172 , 231,
    • LL(1).................................................................
    • LR( k ).................................................................
    • undecidable properties ......................................
  • context-free parsing169, 201, 230, 247 , 477, 480,
  • context-sensitive grammar.....................393, 407, Theorem, context-free
  • context-sensitive language............. 405 , 452, 554,
    • in Boolean logic ................................................ contradiction
    • in first-order logic .............................................
  • convertPDAtodetnormalform ................................ contradiction proof See proof by contradiction
  • convertpdatorestricted 205 , 246,
  • converttoChomsky 182 ,
  • converttoclauseform ..............................................
  • converttoGreibach 663 ,
  • converttononterminal ............................................. - Conway, John ........................................319, 324, - Cook, Stephen................................................504, - Cook-Levin Theorem ....................504, 505 , 577, - Cope, David........................................................... - Coppersmith, Don..........................................276, - Coppersmith-Winograd algorithm.........263, 482, - copyandreverse 142 , - Corasick, Margaret ................................................ - Corman, Thomas ................................................... - co-RP ..................................................................... - of a grammar.............................................166, correctness proof - of a program.......... 20, 89, 364, 381, 619, 710, - countable set .......................................................... - countably infinite set ............................................. - counterexample proof ............................................ - counterpoint........................................................... - countL .................................................................... - createOBDDfromtree ............................................ - Cross, Ian............................................................... - cross-serial dependency......................... 220 , 224, - crossword puzzle construction............................... - cryptography.... 20, 491, 495, 563, 566, 569, 712, - cumulative acknowledgement protocol ................. - currying ................................................................. - cut in a graph ......................................................... - D (the decidable languages)................... 288 , 329, algorithm - D0L-system ........................................................... - da Vinci, Leonardo ................................................ - dance...................................................................... - dangling else problem....................177, 191, 701, - Dantzig, George.............................................527, - das Botenproblem .................................................. - database ................................................................. - database query language..................................16, - Davis, Martin.................................................452, - de Morgan’s laws................... 582 , 607, 636, 637, - dead code elimination....................................364, - dead state 48 , - decidability 26, 31, 288, 329, 335, - Boolean logic .................................................... decidability of - context-free languages ...................................... - first-order logic ................................................. - regular languages .............................................. - decidable language ..................26, 288 , 329, 370, - decidable problem............................ 31 , 345, 370, - decideCFL 242 , - decideCFLempty 244 , - decideCFLinfinite 244 , - decideCFLusingGrammar 241 , 246, 247, - decideCFLusingPDA 243 , 246, 247, 250, - decideFSM 146 , - decideregex ............................................................
  • decideSATdeterministically ...................................
    • by a deterministic TM....................................... deciding
    • by a nondeterministic TM.................................
  • decision problem 19 ,
  • decision procedure........................................... 31 ,
    • Büchi automata 92 , decision procedures for
    • context-free languages ......................241, 384,
    • context-sensitive languages ......................406,
    • regular languages 145 , 384, 485,
  • decision tree...........................................................
  • decoding problem in HMMs............................ 83 ,
  • Dedekind, Richard .................................................
  • deductive verification ............................................
  • Deep Blue ..............................................................
  • deep structure.........................................................
  • default reasoning ...................................................
  • definite clause........................................................
  • degree of a vertex ..................................................
  • deobfuscation...........................................................
  • depth-first search ...................................250, 301,
    • left-most............................................................ derivation
    • right-most..........................................................
    • with context-free grammars ..............................
    • with context-sensitive grammars ......................
    • with regular grammars ......................................
    • with rewrite systems .........................................
    • with semi-Thue systems....................................
    • with unrestricted grammars...............................
  • description logic 745 ,
  • deterministic finite state machine ............................ language: deterministic
  • deterministic normal form for PDAs .............232,
  • deterministic pushdown automaton .......................
  • DFSM-ACCEPT.................................................... DFSM See deterministic finite state machine
  • DFSM-ALL ...........................................................
  • diagonalization ..............................332, 439, 532,
  • dialects of natural languages..................................
  • difference of sets....................................................
  • Dijkstra, Edsgar .....................................................
  • Dijkstra’s algorithm...............................................
  • Diophantine problem .....................................375,
  • diploid organism ..............................................81,
  • DIRECTED-HAMILTONIAN-CIRCUIT.............
  • disjunctive normal form................................. 637 ,
  • disjunctiveBoolean .................................................
    • Euclidean .......................................................... distance
    • Manhattan .........................................................
  • distinguishabilty of strings.......................................
  • distributivity ..........................................................
  • divide-and-conquer................130, 346 , 480, 545, - DNA ............................................................6, 16, DL............................................... See description logic - DNA computing 325 , - document type definition ....................................... - domain of a function.............................................. - double negation ..................................................... - dovetailing 340 , - dspace .................................................................... - Du, Ding-Zhu ........................................................ DTD.............................. See document type definition - dynamic programming.............84, 260, 268, 457, - Earley algorithm 268 , 276, - Earley, Jay ............................................................. - Earleyparse ....................................................272, - Ebcioğlu, Kemal .................................................... - edge cover.............................................................. EBNF............................................ See Extended BNF - EDGE-COVER.............................................. 525 , - Ehrenfeucht, Andrzej............................................. - electronic music..................................................... - Emacs .................................................................... EM See expectation maximization - email ..............................................................727, - Emerson, E. Allen.................................................. - EMI........................................................................ - Büchi automata ................................................... emptiness question for - context-free languages ...................................... - context-sensitive languages .............................. - regular languages .............................................. - SD languages .................................................... - empty clause 639 , - empty set................................................................ - emptyFSM .............................................................. - emptyFSMcanonicalgraph ..................................... - emptyFSMgraph .................................................... - emptyFSMsimulate ................................................ - for complexity analysis..................................... encoding - multiple values as a single string ...................... - of binary addition................................................ - of context-sensitive grammars .......................... - of graphs ............................................................. - of graphs in DNA.............................................. - of multiple tapes as one .................................... - of natural numbers ............................................ - of Turing machines ........................................... - power of .............................................................. - Turing machines encode themselves................. - English.....................................................12, 773 , encryption See cryptography - ambiguity ..................................172, 179, 190, - is context-free ...........................................239, grammar...................................163, 169, 179, 778, - is not regular .....................................138, 142, - Markov model of ..............................................
    • morphological analysis .....................................
    • parser ................................................................
    • part of speech tagging .......................................
      • Wordnet ......................................................... word list
  • entailment ..............................................582, 585 ,
    • 704, 711, Entscheidungsproblem 318 , 333, 381, 402, 452, 504,
    • lexicographically Turing................................... enumerable
    • Turing ...............................................................
  • enumerating Turing machines ...............................
  • enumeration 12 , 587,
    • lexicographic............................................... 13 ,
  • Epp, Susanna .........................................................
  • eps ............................................................................
  • EqTMs 357 , 361,
  • equalFSMs .............................................................
  • equivalence classes ................................................
  • equivalence modulo n ....................................566,
  • equivalence of states in an FSM ..............................
    • context-free languages ......................245, 384, equivalence question for
    • context-sensitive languages ..............................
    • D languages 357 ,
    • regular languages ..............................................
    • SD languages 357 ,
  • equivalence relation...............................................
  • Ethernet .................................................................
  • Euclid’s algorithm 478 ,
  • Euclidean distance .........................................574,
  • Euler, Leonhard .....................................................
  • Eulerian circuit 487 , 499, 523, 536,
  • Eulerian path..........................................................
  • EULERIAN-CIRCUIT.................. 487 , 499, 523,
  • eureka! ...................................................................
  • evaluation problem in HMMs.......................... 84 ,
  • Evey, R. J...............................................................
  • evolution ................................................................
    • law of ................................................................ excluded middle
  • existential generalization .......................................
  • expectation maximization........................................
  • expert system .........................................806, 807,
  • Expr 172 , 176,
  • EXPTIME......................................................499,
  • EXPTIME-completeness ...............................534,
  • EXPTIME-hardness...............................................
  • Extended BNF 698 ,
  • Extensible Markup Language ................................
  • factorization...................................477, 492, 569,
  • Falcone, Rino.........................................................
  • false negative probability.......................................
  • false positive probability .......................................
  • feature grammar............................. 416 , 426, 453,
  • Fermat liar ............................................................. - Fermat number................................................. 32 , - Fermat witness....................................................... - Fermat’s Little Theorem................................ 567 , - Fibonacci sequence................................375, 421 , - FIFO queue plus FSM ...................................319, - finite set ................................................................. - 760, 768, 825, 831, finite state machine24, 46 , 154, 553, 719, 728, 751, - abacus ............................................................... - Antikythera Mechanism.................................... - equivalence with regular expressions ............... - Jacquard loom................................................... - nondeterministic....................................37, 53 , - Prague orloj....................................................... - Towers of Hanoi ............................................... - finite state machine simulator.................................. - finite state transducer............................... 75 , 768, - finiteFSM ............................................................... - finiteFSMgraph ...................................................... - finiteFSMsimulate .................................................. - context-free languages ...................................... finiteness question for - regular languages .............................................. - semidecidable languages................................... - first 257 , - firstchars 39 , 139, - first-order logic...................................... 583 , 644, - normal forms..................................................... - resolution .......................................................... - undecidability ................................................... - Fischer, Michael ............................................452, first-order predicate logic See first-order logic - fixed point.............................................................. - fixed-point theorem ............................................... - FLOAT .................................................................. - Floyd, Robert......................................................... - FNP........................................................................ - follow 257 , FOL See first-order logic - FOL theorem 382 , 535, - Forgy, Charles ....................................................... FOPC See first-order logic - Fortran .......................................3, 187, 697, 704, - forward algorithm 84, 86 , 477, 770, 789, - forward chaining.................................................... - forward-backward algorithm ................................... - four-color problem................................................. - four-color theorem................................................. - FOUR-COLORABLE ........................................... - foxtrot .................................................................... - FP - fractal..................................................................... - Fraenkel, Aviezri ...................................................
  • FSM-EMPTY ........................................................ FSM See finite state machine
  • FSMs-INTERSECT...............................................
  • fsmtoregex ..............................................................
  • fsmtoregexheuristic ................................................
  • FTP ........................................................................
  • Fulkerson, Ray.......................................................
  • function..................................................................
    • μ-recursive 442 ,
    • computable........................ 291 , 400, 430, 437,
    • computation by a Mealy machine .......................
    • computation by a Moore machine.......................
    • computation by a Turing machine 291 ,
    • computation by grammars.................................
    • grammatically computable................................
    • heuristic............................................. 570 , 820,
    • partial ................................................................
    • partial μ-recursive.............................................
    • partial recursive.................................................
    • partially computable 291 , 430,
    • primitive recursive 438 ,
    • recursive............................................................
    • space-constructible............................................
    • static evaluation ................................................
    • time-constructible .............................................
    • total ...................................................................
  • functional programming ........................319, 449,
  • functions on languages ....................................39,
    • alt
    • chop ....................................................................
    • copyandreverse .................................................
    • firstchars .............................................................
    • maxstring ..........................................................
    • midchar .............................................................
    • middle ...............................................................
    • mix ....................................................................
    • pref ....................................................................
    • repl ....................................................................
    • shuffle ................................................................
    • suff ....................................................................
    • twice ..................................................................
  • Fux, J. J..................................................................
  • gadget ....................................................................
  • GALEN .................................................................
  • Galois theory .........................................................
  • Galois, Evariste......................................................
    • 15-puzzle............................................. 35 , 569, games
    • Amazons ...........................................................
    • backgammon.....................................................
    • checkers ....................................................575,
    • chess.............................. 7, 503, 534, 575, 815 ,
    • computer 5, 7, 79, 570, 718, 808,
    • crossword puzzles .............................................
    • Go .....................................................575, 818,
    • Hex.................................................................... - Instant Insanity..........................................569, - interactive 5, 7, 79, 570, 718, 808, - Nim ...........................................347, 484, 560, - n -puzzle............................................................. - Othello .............................................................. - Sudoku ......................................................503, - two-person ........................................................ - video 5, 7, 79, 570, 718, 806, 808,
      • game-search ..........................................................
      • game-search- α - β ...................................................
      • Garey, Michael ......................................................
      • Gene Ontology Consortium................................... gcd See greatest common divisor
      • genetic drift............................................................
      • genetics....................................................80, 762,
      • genome ..................................................................
      • genotype ................................................................
      • GG = ........................................................................
      • Ginsburg, Seymour........................................276,
      • Go ..........................................503, 534, 575, 818,
      • God ........................................................................
      • Gödel numbering ...................................................
      • Gödel, Kurt 318, 383, 448, 451, 585,
      • Google ...............................................................79, Theorem
      • Gouda, Mohamed ..................................................
      • grading program ....................................................
      • Gradus as Parnassum ............................................
      • grammar.................................................................
        • ambiguous.........................................................
        • attribute 416 , 426,
        • context-free .......................................................
        • context-sensitive ...............................................
        • correctness proof...............................................
        • dance.................................................................
        • feature 416 , 426, 453, English .....................................163, 169, 179, 778 ,
        • formalism.......................... 158 , 321, 393, 416,
        • HTML...............................................................
        • island.........................................................186,
        • Java ...................................................163, 178,
        • music.................................................225, 239,
        • normal forms.....................................................
        • OED definition..................................................
        • phrase structure .........................................275,
        • regular ...............................................................
        • right linear.........................................................
        • specification with BNF .............................163,
        • stochastic context-free 188 , 771, 788,
        • Swiss German ...................................................
        • transformational ................................................
        • type 0 393 ,
        • unification 417 , 426, 453,
    • unrestricted .......................................322, 393 ,
  • grammartofsm ........................................................
  • grammatically computable function ......................
    • algorithms .....................................6, 486, 488, graph
    • bipartite 526 ,
    • bisection............................................................
    • chromatic number .............................501, 526 ,
    • clique detection .........................494, 497 , 510,
    • coloring .............................................................
    • complete............................................................
    • connected ............................................21, 485 ,
    • cut .....................................................................
    • edge cover.........................................................
    • encoding......................................................21,
    • Eulerian circuit.................. 487 , 499, 523, 536,
    • Eulerian path.....................................................
    • Hamiltonian circuit 494 , 510, 515,
    • Hamiltonian path...............................325, 494 ,
    • independent set .........................501, 510, 512,
    • isomorphism
    • longest path...............................................524,
    • minimum spanning tree ............................488,
    • planar ................................................................
    • shortest path ......................................................
    • subgraph isomorphism.............................. 510 ,
    • traveling salesman problem ......457, 496, 514,
    • vertex cover 512 , 524,
    • weighted............................................................
  • graphics .............................................................5,
  • GRAPH-ISOMORPHISM.....................................
  • greatest common divisor................................ 477 ,
  • greedy algorithm....................................................
  • Greibach normal form 180 , 237, 243, 255, 275,
  • Greibach, Sheila.....................................................
  • Grep .......................................................................
  • Gries, David...........................................................
  • ground instance.............................................. 584 ,
  • Grumberg, Orna.............................................154,
  • H 330 , 345, 349, 371, 385, 402, 429, 432, 459,
  • Hε 350 , 371, 383,
  • H¬ANY 366 , 371,
  • hackers...................................................................
  • Haken, Wolfgang...................................................
  • H ALL 355 , 369, 371,
  • halting......................................................................
    • finite state machines..............................26, 49 ,
    • linear bounded automata ...................................
    • pushdown automata ............................26, 211 ,
    • Turing machines .................................26, 283 ,
  • halting problem........................26, 329 , 349, 466,
  • Hamiltonian circuit 494 , 510,
    • directed graph ...................................................
  • Hamiltonian path ...................................325, 494 , - HAMILTONIAN-PATH 494 , - H ANY 353 , - Harel, David .......................................................... - Harrison, Michael ..........................................276, - Hart, Peter.............................................................. - Hartmanis, Juris .............................................452, - hashing...........................................................464, - Haskell...................................................319, 704, - hearing aids............................................................ - Hendler, James ...................................................... - Herbison-Evans, Don............................................. - heterozygous organism ....................................81, Hernandez, Oscar.................................................... xii - heuristic ................................................................. - function 570 , 815, 820, - search ....................................6, 569 , 578, 820, - Hex ........................................................................ - hidden Markov model...................................... 82 , - for biological sequence matching ..................... - for speech understanding .................................. - of music ............................................................ - hierarchical regular expression ......................104, - hierarchy theorems ................................................ - space 559 , - time ...........................................................500, - Hilbert, David ........................................318, 375, - Hilbert's 10th problem 375 , - Hiller, Lejaren................................................811, - Hoare, C. A. R. ...................................................... HMM See hidden Markov model - homomorphism...................................................... - homozygous organism........................................... - Hopcroft, John ..........................xi, 276, 452, 453, - Horn clause............................................................ - Howell, Peter ......................................................... - HPSCHD ............................................................... - HTML..................................................5, 16, 186, - HTTP ..................................................................... - idempotence........................................................... hypertext markup language........................ See HTML - identity element ..................................................... - if statement ....................................................177, - Illiac Suite for String Quartet ................................ iff…. .........................................................................ix - immediate constituent analysis .............................. - Immerman, Neil..................................................... - Immerman-Szelepcsényi Theorem ........................ - inbreeding ................................................................ - Incompleteness Theorem .......318, 383, 448, 586 , - inconsistency ......................................................... - independent set ..............................................501, - INDEPENDENT-SET 501 , 510, 512, - indistinguishabilty of strings.................................... - induction ................................................................ - inference engine..................................................... - infinite descending chain .......................................
  • infinite set ..............................................................
  • infiniteFSM ............................................................
  • infix notation .........................................................
  • inherently ambiguous CFL 172 , 258, 384,
  • inherited attribute...................................................
  • Insinnamo, Patrizia ................................................
  • Instant Insanity ..............................................569,
  • integer programming .............................................
  • INTEGERSUM .................................................20,
  • intelligent agent .....................737, 794, 804, 808,
  • interactive gaming 7, 79, 570, 718, 806, 808,
  • Internet........................... 115, 728, 732, 734, 737,
  • interpretation of a wff ............................................
    • closure under............... 40, 129, 222, 229, 342, intersection
    • of sets........................................................589,
  • intersectPDAandFSM 224 ,
  • intractability........................... 459 , 465, 503, 561,
    • of first-order logic.............................................
  • inverse of a function .............................................. loop See loop invariant
  • inverse of a relation ...............................................
  • IP
  • IPA alphabet ..........................................................
  • IPL languages ........................................................
  • irrational number ...................................................
  • Isaacson, Leonard ..................................................
  • island grammar 186 , 276,
  • island parsing................................................. 188 ,
  • isomorphism ..........................................................
    • graph .........................................................510,
    • subgraph............................................................
  • iterative deepening.........................301, 479, 675 ,
  • Iverson, Kenneth........................................................
  • Ives, Charles ..........................................................
  • Jacquard loom........................................................
  • Jacquard, Joseph Marie..........................................
  • Java........ 163, 177, 191, 268, 363, 698, 699, 701,
  • Johnson, David ......................................................
  • Johnson, Selmer.....................................................
  • Johnson, Stephen ...................................................
  • Jones, Kevin ..........................................................
  • Jurafsky, Daniel .............................................276,
  • Karhumaki, Juhani.................................................
  • Karmarkar, Narendra .............................................
  • Karp, Richard ........................................................
  • Kasami, Tadao...............................................260,
  • Kasparov, Garry ....................................................
  • Khachian, Leonid................................................... KB See knowledge base
  • Khoussainov, Bakhadyr.........................................
  • Kippen, Jim............................................................
  • Kleene star ...........................................................9,
    • closure under.............................129, 221, 342,
    • in regular expressions .......................................
      • Kleene, Stephen .....................................111, 154,
      • Kleene’s Theorem..........................102, 111 , 154,
      • KM......................................................................... Kleene's s - m - n Theorem See s - m - n Theorem
      • KNAPSACK..........................................495, 510,
      • knapsack problem ..................................................
      • Knight, Kevin ........................................................
      • knowledge base .............................738, 795, 800,
      • Knuth, Donald .........................57, 453, 473, 577,
      • Knuth-Morris-Pratt algorithm..........57, 473 , 482,
      • Ko, Ker-I................................................................
      • Koch island............................................................
      • Königsberg, Seven Bridges of 486 ,
      • Kozen, Dexter........................................................
      • Kripke structure .....................................................
      • Kruskal, Joseph......................................................
      • Kruskal’s algorithm 489 ,
      • Kuipers, Benjamin .................................................
      • Kuroda, S. Y. .........................................................
      • L = NL? .................................................................
      • Ladner, Richard .....................................................
      • Ladner’s Theorem.......................................... 522 ,
      • Lagarias, Jeff .........................................................
      • Laird, John.............................................................
      • LALR parser..........................................................
      • lambda calculus .............................318, 319 , 452,
      • Landweber, Peter ...................................................
      • language...................................................................
        • cardinality ...........................................................
        • recognition .......................................................... RE See recursively enumerable language
      • Las Vegas algorithm.............................................. type 3 ......................................See type 3 language
      • Lassila, Ora............................................................
      • Latin squares..........................................................
      • law of the excluded middle....................................
      • Lawler, Eugene......................................................
      • leakage................................................................... LBA See linear bounded automaton
      • Lebiere, Christian ..................................................
      • Lee, Lillian ............................................................
      • left factoring ..........................................................
  • left identity.............................................................
  • left recursive grammar rule....................................
  • left-most derivation................................................
  • legacy software ......................................187, 722,
  • legal reasoning...............................................803,
  • Leiserson, Charles .................................................
  • Lenstra, Jan............................................................
  • Leonardo da Vinci .................................................
  • Lesk, Michael ........................................................
  • letter substitution .....................................77, 129,
    • closure under.....................................................
  • letter-equivalence of languages .............................
  • Levesque, Hector ...................................................
  • Levin, Leonid ................................................504,
  • Lewis, Harry .............................................xi, 154,
  • Lex......................................................... 249 , 267,
  • lexer .......................................................................
  • lexical analysis.........................99, 112, 172, 248 ,
  • lexicographic enumeration............................... 13 ,
  • lexicographic order ..................................................
  • lexicographically Turing-enumerable language ....
  • Lichtenstein, David................................................
  • Life, game of .........................................319, 324 ,
  • lightweight analysis ...............................................
  • Lindenmayer, Aristid.............................419, 453,
  • linear bounded automaton.............................. 405 ,
  • linear programming 527 ,
  • linear set.................................................................
  • Linear Speedup Theorem.......................466, 578,
  • LINEAR-PROGRAMMING.................................
  • Linz, Peter..............................................................
  • Lisp.......................... 41, 191, 319, 639, 701, 704 ,
    • in Boolean logic ........................................498, literal
    • in first-order logic .............................................
  • little-o ............................................................467,
  • little-omega............................................................
    • grammar............................................................ LL( k )
    • language............................................................
    • parser ................................................................
  • LMissing ......................................................................
    • space complexity............................................... logarithmic
    • space reduction .................................................
  • logic .......................................................................
    • in A.I. ................................................................ first-order See first-order logic
  • logic programming ................................158, 323, propositional See Boolean logic
  • Logic Theorist ...............................................318,
  • longest English sentence........................................ - LONGEST-PATH .........................................524, - longest-prefix heuristic .......................................... - Jacquard ............................................................ loom - loop invariant.................................................166, - grammar............................................................ LR( k ) - language............................................................ - parser ................................................................ - Lucas, Édouard Anatole ........................................ LT See Logic Theorist - machine learning ................................................... - Macricisum ............................................................ - Mahalanobis, P. C.................................................. - Mairson, Harry ...................................................... - Majordomo ............................................................ - Manhattan distance ................................................ - map coloring.......................................... 525 , 539 , - mapping reducibility.............................................. - mapping reduction 350 , - Markov algorithm ..................................319, 322 , - Markov model ......................................................... Markov chain................................. See Markov model - higher order.................................................81, - of English.......................................................... - of inbreeding....................................................... - of music ............................................................ - of weather ........................................................... - Markov, A. A., Jr...........................................322, - Markov, A. A., Sr. ................................................. - markup language..............................25, 738, 739, - Martin, James ................................................276, - Martin, John...................................................276, - matching algorithm................................................ - mathematical induction.......................................... - Matiyasevich, Yuri ........................................375, - Matiyasevich’s theorem................................. 375 , - Matlab...................................................................... - matrix multiplication .....................................466, - matrix multiplication and CF parsing 262 , - MAX-BISECTION................................................ - MAX-CUT ............................................................ - maximal element ................................................... - maxstring .................................42, 140 , 142, 238, - McCarthy, John ..................................................... - McCulloch, Warren ............................................... - McCulloch-Pitts neuron......................................... - Mealy machine 75 , 154, - Mealy, George .................................................75, - medical databases .................................................. - medical reasoning ..................................650, 750, - Mellish, Christopher S........................................... - context-free languages ..............................241, membership question for - context-sensitive languages 406 , 407, 413,
    • regular languages ..............................................
    • SD languages ............................................333,
    • Turing machines ...............................................
  • Mendelsohn, Noah...................................................
  • Menger, Karl..........................................................
  • Mersenne number ..................................................
  • Mersenne prime .....................................................
  • message routing .....................................................
  • Messenger Problem ...............................................
  • metadata.................................................................
  • Metaphone ...............................................................
  • midchar ..........................................................142,
  • middle ....................................................................
  • Millenium Problem........................................499,
  • Miller, Gary ...................................................568,
  • Miller-Rabin test............................................568,
  • MIN-CUT ..............................................................
  • minDFSM 72 , 74, 148,
  • minimal element ....................................................
  • minimalFSM ..........................................................
  • minimalizable function ..........................................
  • minimalization of a function..................................
  • minimax .........................................575, 708, 794,
  • minimax with α - β pruning .....................................
    • of FSMs ......................................................65, minimization
    • of PDAs ....................................................384,
    • of Turing machines ...........................................
  • minimum spanning tree .........458, 488 , 499, 577,
  • Minsky, Marvin .....................................................
  • Minsky’s Theorem.................................................
  • Misra, Jay ................................................xii, 347,
  • mix 140 , 142, 239,
  • ML .................................................................319,
    • 717, model checking74, 89, 154, 381, 497, 641, 644, 712 ,
  • model of a wff .......................................................
  • model-based test-case generation ..........................
  • Modula-2 ...............................................................
  • modular arithmetic.........................478, 566, 597,
  • modulo equivalence.......................................566,
  • modus ponens 583 ,
  • modus tollens................................................. 583 ,
  • molecules in universe ............................................
  • mono-operational protection framework ...............
  • monotonic reasoning..............................................
    • of a heuristic function ....................................... monotonicity
  • Monte Carlo algorithm ..........................................
  • Moonen, Leon........................................187, 276,
  • Moore machine........................................ 75 , 154,
  • Moore, Edward ................................................75,
  • Moore, F. Richard..................................................
  • Moore, Ronald.......................................................
  • morpheme ..............................................................
  • morphological analysis ............................77, 773 , - Morris, James ..........................................57, 473, - most general unifier ............................................... - protein ...............................................114, 762 , motif - Motwani, Rajeev.................................................... - Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus.................................. - MPCP .................................................................... - MST....................................................... 490 , 499, - MSTdecide ............................................................. - Muller automaton .................................................. - multiplier ............................................................... - Murphy, Gail ......................................................... - music ...............................................79, 225, 239, - Musical Dice Game ............................................... - MUSICOMP.......................................................... - Musikalisches Würfelspiel ..................................... - mutation................................................................. - mutual exclusion.............................................. 89 , - Myhill, John........................................................... - Myhill-Nerode Theorem.......................................... - N3 .......................................................................... - namespace.............................................................. Nakhleh, Luay xii - Nardi, D ................................................................. - n -ary function ........................................................ - n -ary relation ......................................................... - processing .....................................5, 708, 773 , parser See parser, natural language - natural number....................................................... - natural selection..................................................... - Naur, Peter............................................................. - ndfsmconvertandsimulate ........................................ NDFSM See nondeterministic finite state machine - ndfsmsimulate ....................................59, 65 , 145, - 472, ndfsmtodfsm 60 , 74, 129, 148, 151, 154, 212, 226, - ndspace .................................................................. - negation as failure.................................................. - negative Horn clause ............................................. - in Boolean logic ................................................ negative literal - in first-order logic ............................................. - NeqNDFSMs ......................................................... - NeqREGEX ........................................................... - Nerode, Anil .......................................................... - Nerode’s Theorem ................................................... - analysis .........................................................6, network - protocol .......................................5, 16, 63, 97, - security.............................................................. - neural network ....................................................... - neuron, artificial.....................................................
  • Newell, Allen.........................................795, 809,
  • Nilsson, Nils ..........................................................
  • Nim................................................347, 484, 560,
  • NL..........................................................................
  • NL-completeness
  • NL-hardness ..........................................................
    • bottom-up parser ............................................... nondeterministic
    • Büchi automaton .................................................
    • finite state machine ...............................37, 53 ,
    • linear bounded automaton.................................
    • program...............................................................
    • pushdown automaton ..........................38, 194,
    • top-down parser ................................................
    • Turing machine ...........................................38,
  • nonmonotonic reasoning................................ 795 ,
  • nonplayer character................................................
  • nonterminal alphabet .............................121, 158,
  • nonterminal normal form.......................................
  • normal form
    • 3-conjunctive ....................................................
      • 275, 410, Chomsky 180 , 182, 191, 222, 240, 241, 248, 260,
    • conjunctive for Boolean logic...........................
    • conjunctive for first-order logic ........................
    • deterministic .............................................232,
    • disjunctive................................................. 637 ,
    • for Boolean logic ..............................................
    • for context-free grammars.................................
    • for context-sensitive grammars.........................
    • for database queries ..........................................
    • for first-order logic............................................
    • for pushdown automata..................... 204 , 232,
    • Greibach.................... 180 , 237, 243, 255, 275,
    • nonterminal .......................................................
    • prenex ...............................................................
    • restricted 204 ,
  • Norvig, Peter..................................................578,
  • Notation3 ...............................................................
  • Notkin, David ........................................................
  • NOT-SIGMA-STAR .............................................
  • NOT-SIGMA-STAR-SQUARING .......................
  • NP............................................28, 492 , 534, 547,
  • NP-complete .......................................................... NPC See nonplayer character
  • NP-hardness...........................................................
  • NPSPACE......................................................499,
  • n -puzzle .................................................................
  • nullable variable 173 , 185, 241,
  • obfuscation .............................................................. OBDD................ See ordered binary decision diagram
  • obtainSelf .......................................365, 443 , 447, - occur check............................................................ - Ochoa, Gabriella.................................................... - Oettinger, Anthony ................................................ OCR......................... See optical character recognition - Ogden, William ..................................................... - Ogden’s Lemma 233 , 240, - omega .................................................................... - Omega ................................................................... - one-to-one function................................................ omega automaton............................. See ω-automaton - onto function.......................................................... - ontology................................................................. - open world assumption.......................................... - optical character recognition......................28, 83, - optimization problem............................................. - or introduction ....................................................... - 561, 641 , ordered binary decision diagram74, 381, 498, 538, - ordered binary decision tree................................... - ordered pair............................................................ - origami................................................................... - Othello ................................................................... - OWL................................................................16, - P 28, 459, 483, 522, 534, 547, 557, - P = NP?....................................28, 301, 413, 457, - PageRank...........................................................79, P( A ) See power set - 237, PalEven 25 , 135, 162, 188, 191, 197, 215, 220, 231, - 231, 237, 240, palindrome 25 , 135, 162, 188, 191, 197, 215, 220, - PAM ...................................................................... - Papadimitriou, Christos ............................xi, 154, - Parikh, Rohit.......................................................... - Parikh’s Theorem 236 , 240, 276, - parity bit transducer ................................................. - parity checking 48 , - parse table..............................................259, 260, - parse tree................................................................ - represented as a list ........................................... - parser ..................................................................... - bottom-up..................................................202, - chart 268 , - CKY.................................................................. - context-free .......................169, 201, 230, 247 , - deterministic .....................................228, 257, - Earley........................................................ 268 , - island.........................................................188, - LALR................................................................ - LL( k )................................................................. - LR( k )................................................................. - natural language................................ 267 , 777, - predictive .......................................................... - recursive-descent .............................................. - shift-reduce ...............................................203, - top-down ...................................................201,
  • parser generator .....................................................
  • part of speech tagging......................83, 270, 775 ,
  • partial μ-recursive function ...................................
  • partial function.......................................314, 429 ,
  • partial order ...........................................................
  • partial recursive function .......................................
  • partially computable function 291 , 430,
  • partially ordered set ...............................................
  • partition of a set .......................................66, 590 ,
  • patent law.......................................................364,
    • Eulerian............................................................. path
    • finding...............................457, 514, 523, 570,
    • Hamiltonian ......................................325, 494 ,
    • in a directed graph.............................................
    • in an undirected graph.......................................
    • through a Turing machine.................................
  • pattern language.......................................................
  • Păun, Gheorghe .....................................................
  • PDA MIN .................................................................. PDA See pushdown automaton
  • PDAtoCFG ............................................................
  • Peano arithmetic ....................318, 334, 382 , 383,
  • Peled, Doron ..................................................154,
  • Perl.........................................114, 119, 538, 768,
  • Perles, M................................................154, 276,
  • Péter, Rózsa ...........................................................
  • Petrie, Ted..............................................................
  • phenotype ..............................................................
  • phone .....................................................................
  • phoneme ................................................................
  • phonetic alphabet...................................................
  • Phonix......................................................................
  • phrase structure grammar ..............................275,
  • physical security system ........................................
  • pigeonhole principle ..................68, 69, 132, 539,
  • Pitts, Walter ...........................................................
  • planar graph ...........................................................
  • plant development..................................157, 419,
  • poetry.....................................................................
  • Politi, Michal .........................................................
    • space algorithm ................................................. polynomial
    • space complexity...............................................
    • time algorithm........................................... 470 ,
    • time complexity 470 ,
    • time reduction ...................................................
  • population genetics ..................................................
  • positive Horn clause .............................................. POS tagging....................... See part of speech tagging
    • in Boolean logic positive literal
    • in first-order logic - bounded version........................................511, - proof in SD ....................................................... - proof not in D............................................403,
      • Post machine..................................................213,
      • Post production system.. 319, 321 , 452, 697, 806,
      • Post, Emil 320, 321, 376, 452, 697,
      • power set........................................................ 590 ,
      • Prague orloj ...........................................................
      • Pratt, Vaughan .........................................57, 473,
      • precedence relation ................................................
      • precedence table ....................................................
      • pred ........................................................................
      • predictive parser ....................................................
      • pref .................................................................142,
      • prefix notation .......................................................
      • prefix of a string ......................................................
      • prenex normal form .......................................549,
      • Presburger arithmetic..................... 383 , 452, 535,
      • Presburger, Mojzesz ..............................................
      • Prim’s algorithm ....................................................
      • primary structure of a protein ................................
      • prime factorization.........................477, 492, 569,
      • prime number..................................... 20 , 32, 491,
      • prime number of a's.......................................136,
      • Prime Number Theorem ........................................
      • Prime a 136 ,
      • PRIMES..................... 20 , 32, 460, 491, 499, 536,
      • primitive recursive function...................319, 438 ,
      • Principia Mathematica 317 ,
      • prior art ..................................................................
      • probabilistic context-free grammar................ 188 , probabilistic algorithm....... See randomized algorithm
      • probabilistic finite automaton ..................................
      • production system.................. 157 , 321, 322, 697,
      • profile HMM .........................................................
      • program .................................................................
      • program synthesis ..................................................
      • program verification 20, 89, 364, 381, 619, 710,
        • 247, 268, 319, programming language5, 24, 25, 155, 172, 178, 221,
        • ALGOL 60..................................... See ALGOL Ada............................................................ See Ada
        • Algol 68 See Algol
        • Modula-2.......................................... See Modula- ML See ML
  • Prolog ....................................158, 323, 397, 800 , Scheme................................................. See Scheme
    • by construction.................................................. proof
    • by contradiction 133, 216, 348, 365, 609 , 617,
    • by counterexample............................................
  • proper prefix ............................................................
  • proper subset..........................................................
  • proper substring .......................................................
  • proper suffix ............................................................
  • propositional symbol ............................................. propositional logic See Boolean logic
  • Prosite....................................................................
  • protection framework ............................................
    • folding............................................................... protein
    • matching 21, 82, 112, 765 , 767,
    • motif..................................................114, 762 ,
    • structure ............................................................
    • Alternating Bit .................................................. protocol
    • ARQ..................................................................
    • cumulative acknowledgement...........................
    • network .....................................................5, 16,
    • Sliding Window ................................................
    • Stop-and-Wait...................................................
    • TCP...................................................................
  • proveFOL ..............................................................
  • Prusinkiewicz, Przemyslaw ...................................
  • PSPACE ..................................28, 499, 534, 544 ,
  • PSPACE-completeness..................................413,
  • PSPACE-hardness .................................................
    • context-free 216 , 224, 234, 244, 276, Pumping Theorem
    • regular 133 , 146,
  • punched card..........................................................
  • pushdown automaton...............................24, 193 ,
    • configuration.....................................................
    • deterministic .............................................197,
    • nondeterministic..................................38, 194,
  • Putnam, Hilary.......................................................
  • Python............................................................768,
  • QBF 548 , QBE See Query by Example
  • quantified Boolean expression...............................
  • quantified Boolean formula 549 ,
  • quantifier exchange................................................
  • quantum computing .......................................466,
  • Query by Example .................................................
  • query language.........................................25, 724,
  • queue plus FSM .............................................319,
  • quicksort 562 ,
  • Quielle, J. P............................................................
  • Rabin automaton.................................................... - Rabin, Michael ......................154, 452, 535, 568, - Rabin-Miller test............................................568, - Rado, Tibor............................................................ - railroad diagram..................................................... - randomized algorithm................................ 6 , 491, - randomized Turing machine .................................. - range of a function................................................. - Raphael, Bertram ................................................... - RDF ...................................................................5, RBS See rule-based system - RDF Schema.......................................................... - RDF/XML ............................................................. - recursion theorem .................................................. RE language...... See recursively enumerable language - recursive function .................................................. - recursive function theory ....................................... - recursive grammar rule.................................. 161 , - recursive language 288 , - recursive-descent parser......................................... - recursively enumerable language 290 , - reduce-reduce conflict ........................................... - reduction ..........................................23, 334, 345 , - for complexity................................................... - for decidability.................................................. - 703, for undecidability 348 , 380, 383, 384, 401, 681, - for unsemidecidability ...................................... - logarithmic-time................................................ - mapping ....................................................350, - polynomial-time................................................ - via computation history 384 , - reflexive property of relations ............................... - refutation completeness .................................640, - regextofsm .............................................................. regex See regular expression - regular expression............................ 99 , 154, 158, - equivalence with FSMs..................................... - for protein motifs .............................................. - hierarchical ...............................................104, - in DTDs ............................................................ - in EBNF ............................................................ - in lexical analysis.............................................. - in lightweight analysis ..............................104, - in Perl................................................538, 760, - with squaring .................................................... - regular grammar 121 , 154, 171, - regular language ..................24, 43, 49 , 103, 111, - Reingold, Omer ..................................................... Reid, Brian.............................................................. xii - by a deterministic TM....................................... rejecting - by a DFSM..........................................................
    • by a nondeterministic TM.................................
    • by a PDA...........................................................
    • by an NDFSM.....................................................
  • relation...................................................................
    • binary ................................................................
  • relational database .................................................
  • RELATIVELY-PRIME.................................478,
  • removeEps 173 , 182, 243, 245,
  • removeleftrecursion 255 ,
  • removeLong ...........................................................
  • removeMixed 184 ,
  • removeUnits 182 , 245,
  • removeunproductive 165 , 244,
  • removeunreachable .......................................166,
  • Rendell, Paul..........................................................
  • repl .........................................................................
  • replication of a string.................................................
  • resolution ...............................................................
    • in Boolean logic ........................................537,
    • in first-order logic .............382, 650 , 794, 796,
    • SLD...................................................................
  • resolve-Boolean .....................................................
  • resolve-FOL ...........................................................
  • respectively....................................................239, Schema
  • restricted normal form for PDAs 204 ,
  • restriction enzyme..................................................
  • RETE .....................................................................
    • closure under.............................129, 221, 342, reverse
    • of languages ........................................................
    • of strings .............................................................
  • reverse engineering........................................187,
  • rewrite system................ 157 , 321, 322, 393, 697,
  • Rice, H. Gordon.....................................................
  • Rice's Theorem ..............................................360,
  • Rich, Elaine ...........................................................
  • right identity ..........................................................
  • right linear grammar ..............................................
  • right-most derivation .............................................
  • Rinnooy Kan, A. H. G. ..........................................
  • Rivest, Ronald ...............................................577,
  • RNA...............................................................764,
  • Robbins Algebra Conjecture..................................
  • Robinson, J. Alan ..................................................
  • Robinson, Julia ......................................................
  • Robinson, Raphael.................................................
  • RoboCup................................................................
  • robot soccer .................................................5, 48,
  • Robson, J. M..........................................................
  • Roggenbach, Markus .............................................
  • Rose, Gene.............................................................
  • Rosen, Kenneth......................................................
  • Rosenbloom, Paul.................................................. - routing ................................................................... finding........................................... See path finding - Rozenberg, Grzegorz ............................................. - RP .......................................................................... - RSA algorithm...............................................569, - Rubik’s Cube ........................................................... - rule of least power 27 , - rule-based system ..........................157, 321, 806, - Russell, Bertrand ...................................317, 318, - Russell, Stuart................................................578, - Russell’s paradox...........................................317, - Ruzzo, Walter ........................................................ - safety ..................................................................... - Salomaa, Arto ........................................................ - Santa Claus ............................................................ - 541, 548, 577, SAT36, 314, 381 , 459, 495, 497, 499, 504, 505, 528, - SAT solver.....................................................504, - in first-order logic .....................................382, in Boolean logic ................................581, See SAT - Savitch, Walter ...................................................... - Savitch’s Theorem................................................. - scheduling problem................................................ - Scheinberg, Stephen .............................................. - Scheme ..........................................................319, - Schmidt, E. ............................................................ - Schottstaedt, William............................................. - Schubert Lieder...................................................... - Schutzenberger, Marcel-Paul.........................276, - Scott, Dana ............................................................ - SCXML ................................................................. Scott, Mike xii - SD (the semidecidable languages)......... 290 , 329, - SD/D...................................................................... - A * 570 , 794, search - avoidance by greedy algorithms ....................... - best-first ............................................570, 708, - breadth-first.......................301, 479 , 573, 675, - depth-first..........................................250, 301, - heuristic......................... 7, 569 , 578, 815, 820, - in AI programs .................................................. - in game-playing ........................816, 818, 820, - in music composition ........................................ - in puzzle-solving.........................................42, - in regex matching.............................................. - in solving NP problems..................................... - in theorem proving....................................712, - iterative deepening....................301, 479, 675 , - minimax .....................................................794, - secondary structure of a protein............................. - secondary structure of RNA .................................. - security .................................................................. - computer .......................................6, 373, 504,
    • network .............................................................
    • physical .............................................................
  • self inverse.............................................................
  • self-embedding grammar rule................................
  • self-similarity.........................................................
  • semantic interpretation function 16 , 99, 419,
  • Semantic Web..................................5, 6, 27, 737 ,
  • semantics .................................................................
  • semidecidability...............................31, 290 , 329,
    • of ¬TILES ........................................................
    • of first-order logic.............................................
    • of the Post correspondence problem .................
  • semidecidable language...................26, 290 , 329,
    • by a deterministic TM....................................... semideciding
    • by a nondeterministic TM.................................
  • semidecision procedure 34 , 329,
  • semilinear ..............................................................
  • semi-Thue system ..................................393, 402 ,
  • Sénizergues, Géraud ..............................................
  • sentence of first-order logic ...................................
  • sequence alignment..........................................21,
  • set
    • complement.......................................................
    • difference ..........................................................
    • intersection........................................................
    • partition.............................................................
    • union .................................................................
    • closure under.............................................129, set difference
  • Seta, Takahiro........................................................
  • Sethi, Ravi .............................................................
  • set-of-support strategy 640 , 654,
  • SET-PARTITION.................................. 495 , 510,
  • Seven Bridges of Königsberg 486 ,
  • Shamir, Adi............................................................
  • Shamir, Eliahu .......................................154, 276,
  • Shannon, Claude....................................780, 815,
  • Shaw, J. C. .............................................................
  • shift-reduce conflict...............................................
  • shift-reduce parser .........................................203,
  • Shmoys, David ......................................................
  • Shor, Peter .............................................................
  • Shor’s algorithm ............................................492,
  • SHORTEST-PATH ...............................524, 569,
  • SHORTEST-SUPERSTRING....................... 511 ,
  • shuffle 142 ,
  • Sierpinski triangle.......................................... 422 ,
  • Sifakis, J. ...............................................................
  • simcomputer ..........................................................
  • Simon, Herbert ..............................................795,
  • SIMPLE-MAX-CUT .............................................
  • simple-rewrite 157 ,
  • simplex algorithm ..................................................
  • Simulink ..................................................................
  • singleton set ........................................................... - Sipser, Michael .................................xi, 154, 564, - Skolem constants ................................................... - Skolem functions ................................................... - Skolem, Thoraf ...................................................... - Skolemization ................................................646, - SLD resolution...............................................655, - Sliding Window protocol....................................... - s - m - n Theorem....................................................... smn Theorem See s - m - n Theorem - SMTP..................................................................... - SOAR 809 , - soccer-playing robot ....................................5, 48, - sonata form ............................................................ - sorting............................................................562, - Soules, George....................................................... - sound wave ............................................................ - Soundex ................................................................... - of an inference rule ...................................582, soundness - of resolution ...................................................... - with respect to a world...................................... - space hierarchy theorems.......................530, 559 , - space-constructible function .................................. - space-craft controller ............................................. - spam...........................................82, 84, 114, 781, - spanning tree..................................................488, - species counterpoint .............................................. - speech understanding.......................82, 188, 477, - Speedup Theorem ..................................466, 578, - spell checking ........................................................ - SPIN ...................................................................... - SQL ....................................................................... - definition of ..................................6, 734, 739, standards - statechart....................................................63, 97, - statement of first-order logic ................................. - static evaluation function....................................... - statistical A.I.......................................................... - STCON ..........................................................556, - Stearns, Richard E. ................................................ - Stein, Clifford ........................................................ - stochastic context-free grammar.... 188 , 771, 788, - stochastic finite automaton ...................................... - Stock, Oliviero....................................................... - Stockmeyer, Larry ................................................. - Stone, Peter............................................................ - Strassen, Volker.....................................276, 480, - Strassen’s algorithm 263, 276, 466, 480 , 483, - string.......................................................................... - string search.............................56, 112, 472, 482, - STRING-SEARCH................................................ - strong generative capacity 169 , 179, 186, - strong induction ..................................................... - SUBGRAPH-ISOMORPHISM..................... 510 , - sublinear space complexity....................................
  • subset 588 ,
  • SUBSET-SUM 495 , 510,
  • substring ..........................................................10,
  • subsumption........................................... 598 , 640,
  • Sudkamp, Thomas .................................................
  • Sudoku.....................................42, 503, 510, 578,
  • suff .........................................................................
  • suffix of a string.......................................................
  • surface structure.....................................................
  • SVG ...............................................................159,
  • Swiss German grammar.........................................
  • switch statement ....................................................
  • Switched on Bach ...................................................
    • 644, 712 , symbolic model checking74, 89, 154, 381, 497, 641,
  • symmetric key system ...........................................
  • symmetric matrix...................................................
  • symmetric property of relations.............................
    • in compilers ...................................................... syntactic analysis
    • in natural language processing..........................
  • synthesized attribute ..............................................
  • Szelepcsényi, Róbert .............................................
  • tabla drumming......................................................
  • tag system ......................................213, 319, 320 ,
    • Boolean logic .................................................... tautology
    • first-order logic .................................................
    • in Boolean logic ................................................
  • taxicab ripoff problem ...........................................
  • Taylor, R. Gregory.................................................
  • TCP..........................................................63, 727,
  • temporal logic........................................................
  • term........................................................................
  • terminal alphabet ...................................121, 158,
  • test case generation........................................721,
  • text editing .......................................................57,
  • text-processing software ........................................
  • theorem ..........................................................582,
  • theorem prover...............................712, 748, 795,
  • theory, first-order logical .......................................
  • thesaurus ................................................................
  • Theta......................................................................
  • Thomas, Wolfgang ................................................
  • THREE-COLORABLE .................................525,
  • Thue system...........................................................
  • Thue, Axel .............................................................
  • TILES 380 , 504,
  • tiling problem 379 , 504,
  • time hierarchy theorems ................................500,
  • time-constructible function....................................
  • TMMIN 365 , TM See Turing machine
  • TMREG 362 , - token ......................................................112, 248 , - top-down parser .....................................201, 250 , - total function.................................................. 429 , - total order.........................................................13, - totalFSM ................................................................ - totally ordered set .................................................. - Towers of Hanoi ....................................128, 459, - Towers of Hanoi language..................................... - tractability.............................................. 459 , 465, - training problem in HMMs...................................... - finite state............................................ 75 , 768, transducer - transformational grammar ..................................... - transitive closure.................................................... - transitivity.............................................................. - 499, 510, 514, 522, 527, 528, 536, 542, 561, traveling salesman problem6, 457 , 461, 492, 496, - triangle inequality ..........................................458, - trigram model ........................................................ - trigram tagger ........................................................ - trisecting an angle.................................................. - TSP-DECIDE ........................461, 492, 496, 522, TSP See traveling salesman problem - Turing Award ....................................4, 154, 577, - Turing machine................................................25, - deterministic ..................................................... - enumeration by ................................................. - enumeration of .................................................. - function computation 291 , - macro language ................................................. - multitape ........................................................... - nondeterministic..........................................38, - randomized ....................................................... - universal............................................................ - Turing reducibility................................................. - Turing test.............................................................. - Turing, Alan ..........................318, 452, 793, 804, - Turing-enumerable language ................................. - Turing-recognizable language ............................... - tutoring system ...................................................... - twice ....................................................................... - twin primes ............................................................ - TWO-COLORABLE............................. 525 , 539, - two-person games ..................................503, 552, - type 0 grammar...................................................... - type 0 language...................................................... - type 1 language...................................................... - type 2 language...................................................... - type 3 language...................................................... - type checking.........................................238, 699, - U (the universal TM) .....................................307, - Ullman, Jeffrey .........................xi, 276, 453, 578, - UML ...................................................................... - unary function........................................................ - uncountably infinite set ......................................... - undecidability ..................................................31,
    • of a simple security system ...............................
    • of context-free languages..........................173,
    • of first-order logic.............318, 382 , 650, 796,
    • of Hilbert's 10th problem ...................................
    • of the halting problem....................... 331 , 348 ,
    • of the Post correspondence problem .................
    • of tiling problems..............................................
  • unification......................................................417,
  • unification grammar 417 , 426, 453,
  • Unified Modeling Language..................................
  • unify-for-resolution ................................................
    • closure under............... 40, 129, 221, 229, 342, union
    • of sets........................................................588,
  • unit preference strategy 640 ,
  • unit production.......................................................
  • universal instantiation............................................
  • universal resource identifier ....................50, 191,
  • universal Turing machine ......................307, 310,
  • universe, age of......................................441, 457,
  • unreachable variables in context-free grammars ...
  • unrestricted grammar 319, 322, 393 , 402, 452,
  • UNSAT.......................................................... 528 ,
    • in Boolean logic ................................528, 581, unsatisfiability
    • in first-order logic .....................................584,
  • unweighted graph ..................................................
  • useless variables in context-free grammars ........... URI See universal resource identifier
  • USTCON ...............................................................
  • Valiant, Leslie........................................................
  • VALID........................................................... 381 ,
    • in Boolean logic ........................381, 497, 528, validity
    • in first-order logic .....................................382,
  • vending machine FSM.............................................
  • Venn diagram ........................................................
  • verifier ...................................................................
  • vertex cover 512 , 524,
  • VERTEX-COVER......................... 512 , 525, 538, - virus ....................................................................... video game....................................... See games, video - virus detection ...............................................357, - Viterbi algorithm 84 , 86, 154, 477, 770, 776, 790, - Viterbi, Andrew ..................................................... - Wang tile ............................................................... W3C...................... See World Wide Web Consortium - Wang, Hao............................................................. - Wang's conjecture.................................................. - Warshall's algorithm.............................................. - WcW 220 , 224, 289, 406, 480, 699, - weak generative capacity............... 169 , 179, 186, - weighted graph ...................................................... - Weiss, Norman ...................................................... - well-founded set 600 , - well-ordered set 600 , - West, Robert .......................................................... - Boolean logic .................................................... wff - first-order logic ................................................. - Whitehead, Alfred North .......................317, 318, - Winograd, Shmuel .........................................276, - without$ 228 , - Wolfram, Stephen..........................................324, - word problem......................................................... - word processing....................................................... - Wordnet ................................................................. - working memory ................................................... - World Wide Web Consortium ............................... - worst-case performance......................................... - XML 16, 115, 741, 743, 845 , - Yacc.......................................................250, 267 , - Yato, Takayuki ...................................................... - Younger, Daniel.............................................260, - zero of a function................................................... - Zloof, Moshé ......................................................... - ZPP ........................................................................