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CHAPTER II
THEORITICAL FRAMEWORK
A. Review of Related Theories
1. English Language Learning Theories a. Introduction The language teacher, not being a theoretician, usually depends on the research done by linguists, psycho-linguists and socio-linguists. The teacher practices the theories put forward by the theoreticians, including linguists and educationalists, in the class. These theories which eventually lead to methods help the teacher to create techniques to teach a foreign language in the classroom effectively. Thus language theories guide a teacher to select and follow an approach to the teaching of any new language. A modern psychological approach to language is based on moves around two basic theories: behaviorist and cognitive theories of language. Both the theories try to provide an explanation to language learning and present different answers. Behaviorists consider language learning as a process of conditioning and the expected goal in learning is achieved by a series of stimulus and responses. According to behaviorists, learning takes place due to the relationship between stimulus and learners‟ responses to it. Learner, as a result of this conditioning, will be able to give the expected response and then it can be said that he has learned. Thus
practicing the lesson should be important activity of the language learner. Behaviorists believe that these responses of the learners to the stimulus are automatic and not a result of any deliberate thought. During 1930s and 40s, linguists were influenced by Behaviorism and which resulted in the publication of teaching materials based on behaviorist theory. Cognitive theorists say that each learner has a cognitive structure into which any new learning is absorbed. Cognitive theory is also called „mentalist‟ because all cognitive interpretation of language learning rests upon the neuropsychological base of thought. Cognitive theoreticians consider language learning as a „meaningful process‟. Cognitive theory validates Experiential Language Learning because there the learner will understand the new input and connects it with previous inputs or experiences.
b. Language Learning Strategies Learning strategies are used by the learners to help one to acquire, to take input, (Rewrite) and use the information, to make ones learning, quick, simple, more effective which can be passed on to new situations. A learner wants to learn English language to communicate in English fluently and correctly. He needs English in business in a restaurant, to ask directions, etc. Using learning strategies will not enable him to use the language in such situations. Using different learning strategies in a reasonable course of time will enable the learner to use the language
- Metacognitive strategy: many types of Metacognitive strategies exist. a) They assist learners to manage themselves as learners, b) In knowledge seeking process, c) Choose particular tasks for learning. This strategy will help the learner to focus on his area of interest his needs and the best style of learning. Each learning style approach helps to learn a language. Learner can select the learning style which suits him best. Metacognitive strategy helps a learner to select the right resource and fix a goal for language learning. If the goals are not clear the learning process will be obstructed. Metacognitive strategy also helps the learner to handle particular language tasks. Selecting resources to solve these particular tasks also come under this Metacognitive strategy.
- Compensatory Strategies: Guessing the meaning or idea while listening and reading fills a learning gap. Likewise compensatory or communicative strategies assist learners while speaking and writing. Using synonym and gesturing is a strategy for speaking and use of synonym will fill the knowledge gaps while writing. Cohen (2011: 305) thinks that this strategy is suitable for language use only. Little (1999: 42) and Oxford (1990: 35) are of the opinion that this strategy suits both language use and language learning.
- Affective strategies: A learner can identify his feelings like anger, unhappiness and anxiety and s/he can be aware of such situations which produce such feelings. Such in language learning process positive attitudes and beliefs can increase the learner‟s motivation and will improve his language learning.
- Social strategies: Social strategies are an integral part of communicative language learning. Social strategies help students to know about the culture of the target language speaking people. Using this strategy learners can learn with others discuss problem questions, etc. Rubin (1975:43) believes that the following properties will make a good learner if s/he is a willing and accurate guesser, has a strong drive to communicate, willing to make mistakes, practice, monitors his or her own and others‟ speech, and pays attention to meaning A learner can be taught with different learning strategies. The result depends on cultural back ground and contents of the teacher‟s material.
c. Theories, Approaches, Methods And Techniques Edward Anthony (1963:66), an American applied linguist, defines language learning theories, approaches, methods and techniques as follows: An approach is a set of correlative assumptions dealing with the nature of language (i.e. linguistic) and the nature of language
can receive, process, and response the messages. According to Byrne (1987:24) speaking is oral communication. It is a two ways process between speaker and listener and involve productive and receptive skill of understanding, while Huebner (1969:203) states that speaking is the main skill in communication. Based on this idea it is understood that through speaking, someone can communicate or express what she or he wants in order to understand one another. Rivers (1978: 162) says through speaking someone can express her or his ideas, emotions and reactions to other person or situation and influence other person. Furthermore, someone can communicate or express what he or she wants from other and response to other speaker. It means that in order to express someone‟s ideas, speaker must also attend the aspect of speaking, in order that the message is understandable to the listener. According to Brown (2000: 2) in all communication or conversation two people are exchanging information or they have a communication or conversation need. It means that the reason for the people to communicate with other is in order to tell people something, which they do not know, or to find something out from other people. Johnson (1996 : 18) refers to speaking as the ability to produce articulation, sounds or words to express, to say, to show and to think about ideas, taught and feeling. Murcia (1978: 91) says speaking is the primary
element of language and it can be developed from the beginning when someone was born, from the first contact with the language. Furthermore, in speaking, there are some aspects that should be concerned. They are fluency, accuracy (grammar and pronunciation) and comprehensibility. Fluency is the smoothness or flow with which sounds, syllable, words and phrases are joined together when speaking. (htt://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/fluency: 2007). More over Harris (1974: 81) states that the fluency is the case of speed of the flow of the speech. While, accuracy focuses on issues of appropriation and other formal factors. It relates to the use of grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary (Brumfit, 1984). Brown (2000: 268) says that both fluency and accuracy are important goal in Communicative Language Teaching. While fluency may in many communicative language courses be an initial goal in language teaching, accuracy is achieved to some extant by allowing the students to focus on the element of phonology, grammar, and discourse in their spoken output. The statement infers that both fluency and accuracy are important in speaking. Grammar is needed for students to arrange a correct sentence and conversation, while pronunciation refers to the ability to produce easily comprehensible articulation (Syakur; 1987). Besides, fluency and accuracy, comprehensibility is also needed in speaking since it reflect how much the speaker understands what he is talking about. If someone says something beyond the topic discussed, it can be said that he has no comprehensibility towards the topic. In other
Figure 2.1 Types Of Oral Language
In monologues, when one speaker uses spoken language, as in speeches, lectures, readings, and news broadcast, the listener must process long stretches of speech without interruption-the stream of the speech will go on whether or not the hearer understands. In planed, as it opposed to unplanned, monologue differs considerably in their discourse structures. While dialogues involve two or more speakers and can be subdivided into those exchanges that promote social relationship (interpersonal) and those for which the purpose is to convey proportional or factual information (transactional). Brown also provides type of classroom speaking performance, they are:
- Imitative A very limited portion of classroom speaking time may legitimately be spent generating” Human tape-recorder” speech, where for example,
learner practice an intonation contour or try to pinpoint a certain vowel sound. Imitation of this kind is carried out not for the purpose of meaning full interaction, but for focusing on some particular element of language form.
- Intensive Intensive speaking goes one-step beyond imitative to include any speaking performance that is designed to practice some phonological or grammatical aspect of the language. Intensive speaking can be self- imitated or it can even from part of some pair work activity, where learners are “going over” certain forms of language.
- Responsive The students‟ speech in the classroom is responsive short replies to teacher-orstudents-initiated questions or comment. These replies are usually sufficient and do not extend into dialogues. Such speech can be meaningful and authentic:
- Transactional (dialogue) Transactional dialogue, which is carried out for the purpose of conveying or exchanging specific information is to extend form of responsive language. Conversation, for example, may have more of a negotiate nature to them than does responsive speech e.g
- Interpersonal (dialogue) Interpersonal dialogue carried out more for maintaining social relationship than for the transmission of the facts and information e.g.
There are eleven points of micro skills and five points of macro skills of oral production. Those are as follows; Micro skills
- Produce differences among English phonemes and allophonic variants.
- Produce chunks of language of different lengths
- Produce English stress patterns, words in stressed and unstressed positions, rhythmic structure and intonation countour.
- Produce reduces forms of words and phrases
- Use and adequate number of lexical unit (words) to accomplish pragmatic purposes
- Produce fluent speech at different rates of delivery
- Monitor one‟s own oral production and use various strategic devices pauses, fillers, self corrections, backtracking to enhance the clarity of the message.
- Use grammatical word classes (nouns, verbs, etc) systems (tense, agreement, and pluralization), word order, patterns, rules ad elliptical forms.
- Produce speech in natural constituents; in appropriate phrases, pause gropus, breath groups, and sentence constituents
- Express a particular meaning in different grammatical forms
- Use cohesive devices in spoken discourse
Macro Skills
- Appropriately accomplish communicative function according to situations, participants, and goals.
- Use appropriates styles, registers, implicature, redundancies, pragmatic conventions, conversation rules, floor keeping and yielding, interrupting, and other sociolinguistic features in face to face coversations.
- Convey links and connection between events and communicatie such relations as focal and peripheral ideas, events and feeling, new information and given information, generalization and exemplification.
- Convey facial features, kinesic, body language, and other nonverbal cues along with verbal language
- Develop and use a battery of speaking strategies, such emphasizing key words, repharasing, providing a context for interpreting the meaning of words, appealing for help, and accurately assessing how wel your interlocutor is understanding you. In this research, which categorized as the basic of other research, I took only some indicators form micro and macro skills of speaking. It is quite imposible to have all indicators in speaking skill at once. Moreover, the skills I used in this research still general, because it was only a simple classroom action research to solve speaking problems in the class.
speaking task and the criteria that will be used to assess student performance (Richard, 2008; 29,39). In this research, the indicators of teaching speaking are focused to five important points: grammar, vocabulary, content, fluency and pronunciation. The indicators are considered as the most important ones especially for this research. Because the technique used is focued on the process before getting the result. Thus, student have some activities in order to archieve the goals.
e. Problems With Speaking Activities Although speaking is important in language learning, it is also difficult in some terms. There are four problems of speaking activities:
- Inhibition. Unlike reading, writing, and listening activities, speaking requires some degree of real time exposure to an audience. Learners are often inhibited about trying to say things in a foreign language in the classroom; worried about making mistakes, fearful of criticism, or losing face, or simply shy of the attentions that their speech attracts.
- Nothing to say. Even if they are not inhibited, you often hear learniers complain that they cannot think of anything to say. They have no motive to express them selves beyond the guilty feeling that they should be speaking.
- Low or Uneven participation. Only one participant can talk at a time if he or she is to be heard; and in a large group this means that each one
will have only very little talking tinme. This problem is compounded by the tendency of sonme learners to dominate, while others speak very little or not at all.
- Mother-tongue use. In classes where all, or a number of, the learner share the same mother togue, the may tend to use it; because it easier, because it feels unnatural to speak to one another in foreign language, and because they feel less „exposed‟ if they are speaking their mother tongue. If they talking in small group it can be quite difficult to get some classes – particularly the less disciplined or motivated ones – to keep to the target language (Ur, 1991:121).
3. Forms of Audiovisual Translation a. Versioning Versioning is the only form of audiovisual translation which cannot be considered postproduction translation but rather pre-production translation. Versioning means that a film company is shooting different versions of one and the same movie in different languages. Although today almost forgotten, it is one of the oldest forms of film translating. It is a rather costly matter and therefore later abandoned. There shall be more focus on the reasons in the section Origins of subtitles where a short history of film translation is provided. Today versioning is only used for adaptations. Many foreign films and TV series have their American adaptation. The most prominent
time there can be some sort of confusion and usually there is only one speaker who speaks every role in a movie, so the transition between dialogues could also be a bit confusing. (Schröpf 10) On the other hand, Pedersen estimates that voice-over is more economic than dubbing but still roughly as twice as expensive as subtitling.
c. Dubbing When a film is dubbed, the original soundtrack is replaced by a translated soundtrack. Gottlieb therefore states that dubbing creates the perfect illusion – that the translation is actually an original. Dubbing can be both intra- and interlingual, the former being the more commonly used, while the latter is more obvious. Intralingual dubbing is done by replacing the original soundtrack with an identical soundtrack done recorded in a studio rather than on set. This is done for sound quality purposes only, mostly when outdoor sets are in question. On the other hand, there are some constraints of dubbing which need to be taken into account. The most obvious is probably lip-synching, which needs to be taken into account especially considering close-up scenes, where mismatching vowels and consonants would be more visible to the viewer. Another constraint is isynchrony, which concerns the length and speed of the utterance. Lastly, kinetic synchrony matches the movements and gestures of the actors with the spoken words. It is not
uncommon that these constraints have priority over the translation, although dubbing does require less textual reduction than subtitling.
d. Subtitling The term subtitles refers to „words shown at the bottom of a film or television picture to explain what is being said“(Cambridge Dictionaries Online). Gottlieb defines translation as “diasemiotic translation in polysemiotic media (including films, TV, video and DVD), in the form of one or more lines of written text presented on the screen in sync with the original dialogue.” (Gottlieb 2004: 220) Pavlović describes that a “ TV subtitle consists of one or two (occasionally three) lines of translation, mostly in white or yellowish letters against a darker background, appearing near the bottom of the screen simultaneously with the source text and its accompanying moving image.” (Pavlović 2002: 386) Pavlović further explains that subtitles developed from intertitles. The origins of subtitles shall be further looked into in a special chapter dedicated to this. Sometimes subtitles are also referred to as captions although in the United States this term is used for describing intralingual subtitles.
