C++ - The Complete Reference 4th Ed., Study notes of C programming

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C++:

The Complete Reference,

Fourth Edition

C++:

The Complete Reference,

Fourth Edition

Herbert Schildt

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DOI: 10.1036/

Contents at a Glance

Part I The Foundation of C++: The C Subset

1 An Overview of C............................... 3

2 Expressions..................................... 13

3 Statements...................................... 57

4 Arrays and Null-Terminated Strings................ 89

5 Pointers........................................ 113

6 Functions....................................... 137

7 Structures, Unions, Enumerations,

and User-Defined Types........................ 161

8 C-Style Console I/O.............................. 187

9 File I/O........................................ 211

10 The Preprocessor and Comments.................. 237

Part II C++

11 An Overview of C++............................. 255

12 Classes and Objects.............................. 289

v

13 Arrays, Pointers, References, and the Dynamic

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Contents

Introduction............................................. xxix

Part I The Foundation of C++: The C Subset

1 An Overview of C............................... 3

The Origins and History of C................................ 4 C Is a Middle-Level Language............................... 5 C Is a Structured Language................................. 6 C Is a Programmer’s Language.............................. 8 The Form of a C Program................................... 9 The Library and Linking.................................... 10 Separate Compilation...................................... 12 Understanding the .C and .CPP File Extensions................ 12

2 Expressions..................................... 13

The Five Basic Data Types.................................. 14 Modifying the Basic Types.................................. 15 Identifier Names.......................................... 16 Variables................................................. 17 Where Variables Are Declared........................ 18 Local Variables..................................... 18

ix

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Part II

• Allocation Operators
• and Default Arguments 14 Function Overloading, Copy Constructors,
• 15 Operator Overloading
• 16 Inheritance
• 17 Virtual Functions and Polymorphism
• 18 Templates
• 19 Exception Handling
• 20 The C++ I/O System Basics
• 21 C++ File I/O
• 22 Run-Time Type ID and the Casting Operators
  • and Other Advanced Topics 23 Namespaces, Conversion Functions,
• 24 Introducing the Standard Template Library
• 25 The C-Based I/O Functions Part III The Standard Function Library
• 26 The String and Character Functions
• 27 The Mathematical Functions
• 28 Time, Date, and Localization Functions
• 29 The Dynamic Allocation Functions
• 30 Utility Functions
• 31 The Wide-Character Functions
• 32 The Standard C++ I/O Classes Part IV The Standard C++ Class Library
• 33 The STL Container Classes
• 34 The STL Algorithms
• 35 STL Iterators, Allocators, and Function Objects
• 36 The String Class
• 37 The Numeric Classes
• 38 Exception Handling and Miscellaneous Classes - Formal Parameters - Global Variables
  • The const and volatile Qualifiers
    • const
    • volatile
  • Storage Class Specifiers
    • extern
    • static Variables
    • register Variables
  • Variable Initializations
  • Constants
    • Hexadecimal and Octal Constants
    • String Constants
    • Backslash Character Constants
  • Operators
    • The Assignment Operator
    • Type Conversion in Assignments
    • Multiple Assignments
    • Arithmetic Operators
    • Increment and Decrement
    • Relational and Logical Operators
    • Bitwise Operators
    • The? Operator
    • The & and * Pointer Operators
    • The Compile-Time Operator sizeof
    • The Comma Operator
    • The Dot (.) and Arrow (−>) Operators
    • The [ ] and ( ) Operators
    • Precedence Summary
  • Expressions
    • Order of Evaluation
    • Type Conversion in Expressions
    • Casts
    • Spacing and Parentheses
    • Compound Assignments
• 3 Statements
  • True and False in C and C++
  • Selection Statements
    • if
    • Nested ifs
    • The if-else-if Ladder
    • The? Alternative
    • The Conditional Expression
    • switch C o n t e n t s xi
    • Nested switch Statements
  • Iteration Statements
    • The for Loop
    • for Loop Variations
    • The Infinite Loop
    • for Loops with No Bodies
    • The while Loop
    • The do-while Loop
  • Declaring Variables Within Selection and Iteration Statements
  • Jump Statements
    • The return Statement
    • The goto Statement
    • The break Statement
    • The exit( ) Function
    • The continue Statement
  • Expression Statements
  • Block Statements
• 4 Arrays and Null-Terminated Strings
  • Single-Dimension Arrays
  • Generating a Pointer to an Array
  • Passing Single-Dimension Arrays to Functions
  • Null-Terminated Strings
  • Two-Dimensional Arrays
    • Arrays of Strings
  • Multidimensional Arrays
  • Indexing Pointers
  • Array Initialization
    • Unsized Array Initializations
  • A Tic-Tac-Toe Example
• 5 Pointers
  • What Are Pointers?
  • Pointer Variables
  • The Pointer Operators
  • Pointer Expressions
    • Pointer Assignments
    • Pointer Arithmetic
    • Pointer Comparisons
  • Pointers and Arrays
    • Arrays of Pointers
  • Multiple Indirection
  • Initializing Pointers
  • Pointers to Functions
  • C's Dynamic Allocation Functions xii C + + : T h e C o m p l e t e R e f e r e n c e
  • Problems with Pointers
• 6 Functions
  • The General Form of a Function
  • Scope Rules of Functions
  • Function Arguments - Call by Value, Call by Reference - Creating a Call by Reference - Calling Functions with Arrays
  • argc and argv—Arguments to main( )
  • The return Statement - Returning from a Function - Returning Values - Returning Pointers - Functions of Type void - What Does main( ) Return?
  • Recursion
  • Function Prototypes - Standard Library Function Prototypes
  • Declaring Variable-Length Parameter Lists
  • Old-Style Versus Modern FunctionParameter Declarations
    • and User-Defined Types 7 Structures, Unions, Enumerations,
  • Structures - Accessing Structure Members - Structure Assignments
  • Arrays of Structures
  • Passing Structures to Functions - Passing Structure Members to Functions - Passing Entire Structures to Functions
  • Structure Pointers - Declaring a Structure Pointer - Using Structure Pointers
  • Arrays and Structures Within Structures
  • Bit-Fields
  • Unions
  • Enumerations
  • Using sizeof to Ensure Portability
  • typedef
• 8 C-Style Console I/O
  • An Important Application Note
  • Reading and Writing Characters C o n t e n t s xiii
    • A Problem with getchar( )
    • Alternatives to getchar( )
  • Reading and Writing Strings
  • Formatted Console I/O
  • printf( )
    • Printing Characters
    • Printing Numbers
    • Displaying an Address
    • The %n Specifier
    • Format Modifiers
    • The Minimum Field Width Specifier
    • The Precision Specifier
    • Justifying Output
    • Handling Other Data Types
    • The * and # Modifiers
  • scanf( )
    • Format Specifiers
    • Inputting Numbers
    • Inputting Unsigned Integers
    • Reading Individual Characters Using scanf( )
    • Reading Strings
    • Inputting an Address
    • The %n Specifier
    • Using a Scanset
    • Discarding Unwanted White Space
    • Non-White-Space Characters in the Control String
    • You Must Pass scanf( ) Addresses
    • Format Modifiers
    • Suppressing Input
• 9 File I/O
  • C Versus C++ File I/O
  • Streams and Files
  • Streams
    • Text Streams
    • Binary Streams
  • Files
  • File System Basics
    • The File Pointer
    • Opening a File
    • Closing a File
    • Writing a Character
    • Reading a Character
    • Using fopen( ), getc( ), putc( ), and fclose( ) xiv C + + : T h e C o m p l e t e R e f e r e n c e
    • Using feof( )
    • Working with Strings: fputs( ) and fgets( )
    • rewind( )
    • ferror( )
    • Erasing Files
    • Flushing a Stream
  • fread( ) and fwrite( )
    • Using fread( ) and fwrite( )
  • fseek( ) and Random-Access I/O
  • fprintf( ) and fscanf( )
  • The Standard Streams
    • The Console I/O Connection
    • Using freopen( ) to Redirect the Standard Streams
• 10 The Preprocessor and Comments
  • The Preprocessor
  • #define
    • Defining Function-like Macros
  • #error
  • #include
  • Conditional Compilation Directives
    • #if, #else, #elif, and #endif
    • #ifdef and #ifndef
  • #undef
  • Using defined
  • #line
  • #pragma
  • The # and ## Preprocessor Operators
  • Predefined Macro Names
  • Comments
  • Single-Line Comments
• 11 An Overview of C++ C++
  • The Origins of C++
  • What Is Object-Oriented Programming?
    • Encapsulation
    • Polymorphism
    • Inheritance
  • Some C++ Fundamentals
    • A Sample C++ Program
      • A Closer Look at the I/O Operators C o n t e n t s xv
      • Declaring Local Variables
      • No Default to int
      • The bool Data Type
  • Old-Style vs. Modern C++ - The New C++ Headers - Namespaces - Working with an Old Compiler
  • Introducing C++ Classes
  • Function Overloading
  • Operator Overloading
  • Inheritance
  • Constructors and Destructors
  • The C++ Keywords
  • The General Form of a C++ Program
• 12 Classes and Objects
  • Classes
  • Structures and Classes Are Related
  • Unions and Classes Are Related - Anonymous Unions
  • Friend Functions
  • Friend Classes
  • Inline Functions - Defining Inline Functions Within a Class
  • Parameterized Constructors - Constructors with One Parameter: A Special Case
  • Static Class Members - Static Data Members - Static Member Functions
  • When Constructors and Destructors Are Executed
  • The Scope Resolution Operator
  • Nested Classes
  • Local Classes
  • Passing Objects to Functions
  • Returning Objects
  • Object Assignment
    • Allocation Operators 13 Arrays, Pointers, References, and the Dynamic
  • Arrays of Objects - Creating Initialized vs. Uninitialized Arrays
  • Pointers to Objects
  • Type Checking C++ Pointers
  • The this Pointer xvi C + + : T h e C o m p l e t e R e f e r e n c e
  • Pointers to Derived Types
  • Pointers to Class Members
  • References - Reference Parameters - Passing References to Objects - Returning References - Independent References - References to Derived Types - Restrictions to References
  • A Matter of Style
  • C++'s Dynamic Allocation Operators - Initializing Allocated Memory - Allocating Arrays - Allocating Objects - The nothrow Alternative - The Placement Form of new
    • and Default Arguments 14 Function Overloading, Copy Constructors,
  • Function Overloading
  • Overloading Constructors - Overloading a Constructor to Gain Flexibility - Allowing Both Initialized and Uninitialized Objects
  • Copy Constructors
  • Finding the Address of an Overloaded Function
  • The overload Anachronism
  • Default Function Arguments - Default Arguments vs. Overloading - Using Default Arguments Correctly
  • Function Overloading and Ambiguity
• 15 Operator Overloading
  • Creating a Member Operator Function - of the Increment and Decrement Operators Creating Prefix and Postfix Forms - Overloading the Shorthand Operators - Operator Overloading Restrictions
  • Operator Overloading Using a Friend Function - Using a Friend to Overload ++ or – – - Friend Operator Functions Add Flexibility
  • Overloading new and delete - Overloading new and delete for Arrays - Overloading the nothrow Version of new and delete
  • Overloading Some Special Operators
    • Overloading [ ]
    • Overloading ( )
    • Overloading –>
  • Overloading the Comma Operator
• 16 Inheritance
  • Base-Class Access Control
  • Inheritance and protected Members
    • Protected Base-Class Inheritance
  • Inheriting Multiple Base Classes
  • Constructors, Destructors, and Inheritance
    • When Constructors and Destructors Are Executed
    • Passing Parameters to Base-Class Constructors
  • Granting Access
  • Virtual Base Classes
• 17 Virtual Functions and Polymorphism
  • Virtual Functions - Class Reference Calling a Virtual Function Through a Base
  • The Virtual Attribute Is Inherited
  • Virtual Functions Are Hierarchical
  • Pure Virtual Functions
    • Abstract Classes
  • Using Virtual Functions
  • Early vs. Late Binding
• 18 Templates
  • Generic Functions
    • A Function with Two Generic Types
    • Explicitly Overloading a Generic Function
    • Overloading a Function Template
    • Using Standard Parameters with Template Functions
    • Generic Function Restrictions
  • Applying Generic Functions
    • A Generic Sort
    • Compacting an Array
  • Generic Classes
    • An Example with Two Generic Data Types
    • Applying Template Classes: A Generic Array Class
    • Using Non-Type Arguments with Generic Classes
    • Using Default Arguments with Template Classes
    • Explicit Class Specializations
  • The typename and export Keywords
  • The Power of Templates
• 19 Exception Handling
  • Exception Handling Fundamentals
    • Catching Class Types
    • Using Multiple catch Statements
  • Handling Derived-Class Exceptions
  • Exception Handling Options
    • Catching All Exceptions
    • Restricting Exceptions
    • Rethrowing an Exception
  • Understanding terminate( ) and unexpected( )
    • Setting the Terminate and Unexpected Handlers
  • The uncaught_exception( ) Function
  • The exception and bad_exception Classes
  • Applying Exception Handling
• 20 The C++ I/O System Basics
  • Old vs. Modern C++ I/O
  • C++ Streams
  • The C++ Stream Classes
    • C++'s Predefined Streams
  • Formatted I/O
    • Formatting Using the ios Members
    • Setting the Format Flags
    • Clearing Format Flags
    • An Overloaded Form of setf( )
    • Examining the Formatting Flags
    • Setting All Flags
    • Using width( ), precision( ), and fill( )
    • Using Manipulators to Format I/O
  • Overloading << and >>
    • Creating Your Own Inserters
    • Creating Your Own Extractors
    • Creating Your Own Manipulator Functions
• 21 C++ File I/O
  • and the File Classes
  • Opening and Closing a File
  • Reading and Writing Text Files
  • Unformatted and Binary I/O
    • Characters vs. Bytes
    • put( ) and get( )
    • read( ) and write( )