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BUILDING A CRITICALLY REFLECTIVE PRACTICE: RELATING
BROOKFIELD’S FOUR LENSES TO INSERVICE TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES
by
LAURA HELEN NAGER
Mercer University
A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty
in the Curriculum and Instruction Program
of Tift College of Education
at Mercer University
in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Atlanta, GA
2017
BUILDING A CRITICALLY REFLECTIVE PRACTICE:
RELATING BROOKFIELD’S FOUR LENSES
TO INSERVICE TEACHERS’ EXPERIENCES
by
LAURA HELEN NAGER
Approved:
________________________________________________________________________
Justus J. Randolph, Ph.D. Date Dissertation Committee Member
________________________________________________________________________
Karen Weller Swanson, Ed.D. Date Dissertation Committee Member
________________________________________________________________________
Wynnetta A. Scott-Simmons, Ed.D. Date Dissertation Committee Member
________________________________________________________________________
Jane West, Ed.D. Date Director of Doctoral Studies, Tift College of Education
Lucy Bush, Ed.D. Date Chair, Teacher Education, Atlanta
________________________________________________________________________
Keith E. Howard, Ph.D. Date Interim Dean of Graduate Studies
iv
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
As this journey ends and the door closes, I am encouraged as I reflect on the path
that led me here. It was not without tremendous support, encouragement, and
understanding from those around me. First, I must acknowledge my committee
members. Dr. Randolph, thank you for stepping into the position of chair, your patience,
understanding, and ability to create Sheldonian, and other, analogies to help me relate to
the process. Your feedback, support, and reassurance helped me to look at my research
from a new perspective. Dr. Swanson, your constructive feedback kept me on track. Dr.
Scott-Simmons, your positive energy and passion kept me motivated.
I would like to thank my participants. Your openness and honesty provided a
level of depth to the study. Our conversations prompted me to reflect upon aspects of my
life and my teaching that I would not have otherwise considered. Thank you again!
Thank you to my editor, Dr. Elizabeth Keaney. I salute you. Your expertise
making this word processing program bend to your every whim was an amazing feat. It
inspired me to learn more about the hidden wonders it holds—later on.
I would also like to thank my colleagues. Marsha, I cannot thank you enough for
all those afternoons of encouragement, discourse, and motivation. “Aunt Judy”, “Curly,”
and Denise, I thank you for your prayers, shoulders, and fires you lit when I was losing
stamina. Mike, thank you for your understanding and support through each assignment
v
change request. I truly believe that with each rotation, I learned more about what it takes
outside the classroom to make teaching inside the classroom possible.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
x
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
- Rationale .............................................................................................. CHAPTER Page
- Formulate a Focus ................................................................................
- Initial Search Strategy ..........................................................................
- Data Collection and Evaluation ...........................................................
- Electronic Data.........................................................................
- Cooper’s Coverage Categories ................................................
- Representative and Central/Pivotal Coverage .........................
- Preview of Theories and Constructs ....................................................
- Adult Learning Theory ....................................................................................
- Self-Directed Learners .........................................................................
- Effective Teachers ...............................................................................
- Summary of Adult Learning Theory....................................................
- Transformative Learning Theory .....................................................................
- Transformative Learning in the Classroom .........................................
- Transformative Teacher Epistemology ................................................
- Summary of Transformative Learning Theory ....................................
- Critical Theory and Critical Social Theory ......................................................
- Critiquing Critic ...................................................................................
- Tracing the Doctrines of Critical Theory .............................................
- The History of Idealism ...........................................................
- The Development of Modern Idealism ....................................
- Critical Social Consciousness ..............................................................
- Critical Pedagogy .................................................................................
- Critical Reflection in Pedagogy ...........................................................
- Summary of Critical Theory ................................................................
- The Journey from Reflection to Critical Reflection ........................................
- Definitions and Descriptions of Reflection..........................................
- Models and Modes of Reflection .........................................................
- Reflection and Collaboration ...............................................................
- Transformation through Critical Reflection.........................................
- Reflection in the Classroom .................................................................
- Brookfield’s Lenses of Critical Reflection ......................................................
- The Lens of the Autobiographical Learner ..........................................
- The Lens of a Student’s Perspective ..................................................
- The Lens of a Colleague’s Perspective ..............................................
- The Lens of Theoretical Literature ....................................................
- Research Related to Brookfield’s Four Reflective Lenses ...........................
- Evidence of the Autobiographical Lens .............................................
- Self-Reflection ....................................................................... Representative Examples of Empirical Studies of Critical
- Summary of Research on Critical Self-Reflection.................
- Evidence of the Lens of Student Perspective ..................................... CHAPTER Page
- Student Perspective ................................................................ Representative Examples of Empirical Studies with
- Summary of Research on Student Perspectives .....................
- Evidence of the Lens of Collaborative Input .....................................
- Collaborative Input ................................................................ Representative Examples of Empirical Studies with
- Collaboration.......................................................................... Summary of Research on Reflection through
- Evidence of the Lens of Theoretical Support ....................................
- Summary of Theoretical Literature ........................................
- Reflection over Time .....................................................................................
- Research Using All Four of Brookfield’s Lenses over Time ........................
- Summary ........................................................................................................
- METHODOLOGY
- Narrative Inquiry............................................................................................
- A History of Narrative Inquiry ..........................................................
- Narrative in Psychology.........................................................
- Narrative in Law ....................................................................
- Narrative in Medicine ............................................................
- Narrative in Ethics .................................................................
- Narrative in Education ...........................................................
- Summary of Narrative Inquiry ...........................................................
- Research Questions Reiterated ......................................................................
- Research Design and Rationale .....................................................................
- Interpretive Framework of the Study .............................................................
- Context of the Study ......................................................................................
- Sample and Sample Selection ........................................................................
- Data Collection and Instrumentation .............................................................
- Background Questionnaire.................................................................
- Timelines............................................................................................
- Interviews ...........................................................................................
- The Narrative Interview .........................................................
- Bauer's Narrative Interview Process ......................................
- Field Notes .........................................................................................
- Data Analysis .................................................................................................
- Data Coding Stages ............................................................................
- McCracken’s Analytic Method ..........................................................
- Data Organization ..............................................................................
- Role of Researcher ......................................................................................... CHAPTER Page
- Insider Bias ........................................................................................
- Historical Influences ..............................................................
- Current Influences ..................................................................
- Outsider Bias ......................................................................................
- Provisions for Trustworthiness ......................................................................
- Summary ........................................................................................................
- RESULTS
- Overview of the Participants ..........................................................................
- Helen ..............................................................................................................
- Development of Helen’s Autobiographical Practice .........................
- It Is What It Is, But What Is It? ..............................................
- Searching for the Obvious Answers ......................................
- Go with What You Know ......................................................
- Two Steps Back and Three Steps Forward ............................
- Development of Helen’s Consideration of Student Perspectives ......
- Clearing a Path .......................................................................
- Creating a Foundation ............................................................
- Scaffolding all Around ...........................................................
- Too Much Scaffolding is Constricting...................................
- Freedom Still Needs Guidelines ............................................
- The Support of a Pedestal ......................................................
- Development of Helen’s Collaboration with Colleagues ..................
- A Warm Cocoon ....................................................................
- Spreading Her Wings .............................................................
- Time to Fly.............................................................................
- The Unicorn ...........................................................................
- Development of Helen’s Consult of Theoretical Literature ..............
- Holding onto Theory ..............................................................
- Indignation Spawns a Rebellion ............................................
- Reality Trumps Theory ..........................................................
- Helen’s Development towards Critical Reflection ............................
- Naïve-Transitive Consciousness ............................................
- Developing Social Consciousness .........................................
- Critical Consciousness ...........................................................
- Summary: Helen ................................................................................
- Zell .................................................................................................................
- Development of Zell’s Autobiographical Practice ............................
- Egocentricity .......................................................................... CHAPTER Page
- The Other Side of the Table ...................................................
- Doing the Right Thing ...........................................................
- Development of Zell’s Consideration of Student Perspectives .........
- What about the Student? ........................................................
- Social Awareness over Instructional Style ............................
- The View from the Other Side ...............................................
- Development of Zell’s Collaboration with Colleagues .....................
- Tolerance Versus Team Culture ............................................
- Collaborative Planning...........................................................
- Development of Zell’s Consult of Theoretical Literature..................
- From Thematic Units to Innovation .......................................
- Pulling from Real Life ...........................................................
- Zell’s Development towards Critical Reflection ...............................
- Naïve-Transitive Consciousness ............................................
- Developing Social Consciousness .........................................
- Critical Consciousness ...........................................................
- Summary: Zell ...................................................................................
- Nathaniel ........................................................................................................
- Development of Nathaniel’s Autobiographical Practice ...................
- The Answer Man....................................................................
- Asing Questions .....................................................................
- Finding a Balance ..................................................................
- Perpectives ......................................................................................... Development of Nathaniel’s Consideration of Student
- Teaching to the Students ........................................................
- Teaching for the Students ......................................................
- Development of Nathaniel’s Collaboration with Colleagues ...........
- The Answer Man....................................................................
- The Inquisitor .........................................................................
- Development of Nathaniel’s Consult of Theoretical Literature ........
- Pedagogy ................................................................................
- Andragogy..............................................................................
- Nathaniel’s Development towards Critical Reflection ......................
- Naïve-Transitive Consciousness ............................................
- Developing Social Consciousness .........................................
- Critical Consciousness ...........................................................
- Summary: Nathaniel ..........................................................................
- Rachel ............................................................................................................
- Development of Rachel’s Autobiographical Practice ........................ - Physician Heal Thyself .......................................................... CHAPTER Page - Metacognitively Speaking .....................................................
- Development of Rachel’s Consideration of Student Perspectives .....
- Good Intentions ......................................................................
- A Hard Habit to Break ...........................................................
- Critical Consciousness ...........................................................
- Development of Rachel’s Collaboration with Colleagues .................
- Not What I Expected ..............................................................
- We Go Together Well, Mostly........................................
- Moving Right Along ..............................................................
- Development of Rachel’s Consult of Theoretical Literature .............
- Novice Thoughts ....................................................................
- New Information ....................................................................
- Veteran Synthesis...................................................................
- Rachel’s Development towards Critical Reflection ...........................
- Naïve-Transitive Consciousness ............................................
- Developing Social Consciousness .........................................
- Critical Consciousness ...........................................................
- Summary: Rachel ...............................................................................
- Cross-Case Analysis
- Participants' Experiences with the Autobiographical Lens
- Pedagogical Instinct ...............................................................
- Pinpointing Assumptions .......................................................
- Participants' Experiences with the Student Lens
- Communication
- Power Dynamics
- Participants' Experiences with the Colleague Lens
- Critical Discourse with Colleagues
- Problem Solving with Colleagues
- Participants' Experiences with the Theoretical Lens
- Name Experiences
- Break Familiar Groupthink/Status Quo
- Seeing the Bigger Picture......................................................
- Participants' Experiences with Critical Reflection
- Summary
- DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
- Addressing the Research Questions ...............................................................
- Becoming Critically Reflective over Time ........................................
- Participants' Use of the Autobiographical Lens ................................. - Personal Changes ................................................................... CHAPTER Page - Professional Changes
- Participants' Consideration of the Student Lens ................................
- Participants’ Consultation of the Collaborative Lens ........................
- Participants’ Consultation of the Theoretical Lens ............................
- Participants’ Development of Social Consciousness .........................
- Awareness ..............................................................................
- Advocating .............................................................................
- Relationship to the Literature.........................................................................
- Findings and Implications ..............................................................................
- Preservice Training on Reflective Practice ........................................
- Time for Reflection ............................................................................
- Professional Development .................................................................
- Recommendations for Further Research ........................................................
- Final Thoughts ...............................................................................................
- REFERENCES ................................................................................................................
- APPENDICES .................................................................................................................
- A IRB APPROVAL
- B INFORMED CONSENT
- C PARTICIPANT SEARCH
- D BACKGROUND QUESTIONNAIRE
- E TIMELINES
- F INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
- G HELEN'S TIMELINE
- H ZELL'S TIMELINE
- I NATHANIEL'S TIMELINE...................................................................
- J RACHEL'S TIMELINE
- 1 Timeline of Data Collection Table Page
- 2 Participants’ Background Information
- 3 Participants’ Autobiographical Experiences of Instinct and Assumption
- Student Lens 4 Participants’ Experiences with Communication and Power within the
- 5 Participants’ Experiences with the Lens of a Colleague
- 6 Participants’ Experiences with the Theoretical Lens
- 7 Participants’ Experiences with Critical Reflection
- 8 Helen and Zell Becoming Critically Reflective over Time
- 9 Changes to the Autobiographical Lens: Personal
- 10 Changes to the Autobiographical Lens: Professional
- 11 Changes to the Student Lens
- 12 Changes to the Collaborative Lens
- 13 Changes to the Theoretical Lens
- 14 Changes to the Level of Social Consciousness
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
1 Conceptual Framework Illustrating the Level of Awareness of Self and Surroundings Necessary to Reflect at a Critical Level 17
2 Relationship of Theories and Constructs 45
3 Illustration of Lindeman’s (1926) Vision for Adult Learning 47
4 Three-Dimensional Narrative Inquiry Space 177
5 The Narrative Interview Process 183
xvi
interviews was employed. MAXQDA was utilized to collect and sort through the open,
axial, and selective coding stages.
The findings suggest that these participants consistently engaged their
autobiographical lens when reflecting. Considering the needs and perspectives of the
student by engaging the student lens was also more consistent than the other two lenses.
All of the participants experienced some growth in their reflective practice with
colleagues and theory. Findings suggest that the participants’ level of social
consciousness varied based upon school climate, school demographics, openness of
colleagues, and administrative expectations appeared to influence the results. For some
participants, personal stressors such as money, divorce, and gain or loss of a child
indicated a positive correlation to the level of consciousness displayed.
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
“Educators must ask themselves for whom and on whose behalf they are working. The more conscious and committed they are, the more they understand that their role as educators requires them to take risks, including a willingness to risk their own jobs.” -Paulo Freire, 1985
Today’s classrooms are changing. They are more academically, racially, and
socioeconomically diverse than ever before (Center for Education Policy, 2007).
Heraclitus is credited with saying, “The only thing that is constant is change” (Kahn,
1979, p. 148). Prior to the 1980s, state-to-state comparisons of student achievement were
considered taboo (Birman, 2013). Then came the 1983 report, A Nation at Risk.
According to Birman (2013), the report pointed out the need for a way to monitor student
achievement across America so that more accurate nation-to-nation comparisons could be
conducted. Congress and numerous education groups called for the establishment of
academic goals and expectations for all students in the core content areas. Eventually,
the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) was enacted in an effort to create and
maintain an educational equilibrium nationwide. Uniform accountability measures, such
as mandated standardized assessments and teacher evaluations (Aske, Connolly, &
Corman, 2013) were expectations, especially of districts that received federal funding.
However, the uniform and test-driven curriculum and instruction required by
NCLB did not consistently promote pedagogy attuned to diverse student needs
(Hannaway & Hamilton, 2008). Local schools received the responsibility of
cannot afford to wait a year or more for new teachers to become really effective” (para.
2); they “have to be effective from Day 1” (para. 2). Teachers are responsible for the
education and personal growth of nearly 20% of the population of the United States
(United States Census Bureau, 2013). Teachers must be able to provide effectively the
best outcome for the growth of the population for which they are responsible (Sellars,
2012).
The traits of effective leaders include an internal motivation to continue learning,
a tendency to collaborate with others in the pursuit of a positive outcome, an ongoing
analysis of their personal point of view while respecting the different views of others, and
a comprehension of the hegemonic structure of their organization (Argyris, 1990; Banks,
1994; Brown, 2004; Senge, Kleiner, Roberts, Ross, & Smith, 1994; Wheatley, 1992).
Research conducted with university teacher educators and students indicates that an
effective teacher should implement the following critical practices: (a) become a lifelong,
self-directed learner (Brookfield, 1995b; Darling-Hammond, 2005; Gureckis & Markant,
2012; Knowles, 1984); (b) work collaboratively toward a critical pedagogy (Arora, Kean,
& Anthony, 2000; Bean & Stevens, 2002; Beltran, 2004; Carrington & Selva, 2010;
Ellison, 2008; Franz, 2007; Gomez, 1996; Wlodarsky, 2005; Zeichner & Liston, 1996);
(c) critically reflect to transform assumptions (Johnson, 2002; Newman, 1987; Schlitz,
Vieten, & Miller, 2010; Taylor, 2008; Weber, 2008); and (d) consider the structure and
nature of schools (Andrews & Grogan, 2001; Cochran-Smith et al., 1999; Gutierrez,
2008; Ladson-Billings, 1994).
According to Saylor (2014), many of the studies cited in the previous paragraph
focus narrowly on quantitative or categorical survey data. Studies on self-directed
learning derived much of its data from other fields of study. The empirical results have
been inconclusive in the domains relevant to teacher education and reflection (Gureckis
& Markant, 2012). Studies touted to be conducted with teachers in the classroom often
focused on K-12 teachers who participated in district-approved professional development
(Arora, Kean, & Anthony, 2000; Ellison, 2008; Williams & Grudnoff, 2011) instead of
coursework and strategies the teachers might have chosen themselves. In other studies,
teachers in higher education analyzed their own instruction and curriculum choices using
student weekly responses to develop a critical practice (Canning, 1991; Horwitz, 2007;
Wlodarsky, 2005). Still other teacher educators conducted studies using the data from
student journals and interviews for the purpose of creating an attribute scale with which
to measure the development of student levels of reflective practice (Carrington & Selva,
2010; Kember et al., 1999; Myers, 2003). In these cases the results, though heavily
quantitative, were too narrow to be generalized (Chi, 2010; Hegerty, 2009; Kember et al.,
1999; Williams & Grudnoff, 2011; Wlordarsky, 2005).
Surveys used in these studies provided researchers with characteristic traits of a
critically reflective practitioner; however, the transformational path taken by each
participant was not, nor was it feasible to be, recorded in the findings. Much of the
qualitative data resulted from studies conducted with preservice teachers in which the
focus was on critical incidents reports of their coursework (Brookfield, 1992, 2002;
Gilstrap, 2010; Gilstrap & Dupree, 2008; Glowacki-Dudka & Barnett, 2007; Holyoke &
