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- buffy coat a thin light colored layer of white blood cells and platelets than lie between a top layer of plasma and red blood cells in a centrifuged sample of blood. makes up <1% of the total volume of blood
- erhythrocytes red blood cells that transport oxygen from the lungs to the body cells and deliver carbon dioxide from the body cells to the lungs
- hemopoiesis process where the formed elements of blood develop
- before birth, this occurs in the yolk sac of an embryo and later in the liver spleen, thymus and lymph nodes
- after birth and so on, red bone marrow is where this happens
- thrombopoietin the hormone produced by the liver that stimulates the formation of platelets from megakaryocytes
- megakaryoblasts Develop into platelets; need TPO for myeloid stem cells to form into megakary- ocytes that then develop into this
- neutrophils A type of white blood cell that engulfs invading microbes and contributes to the nonspecific defenses of the body against disease.
- what cells se- crete lysozymes?
paneth cells/ neutrophils
- intrinsic pathway - occurs slowly and most complex
- activators are in direct contact with blood or contained within the blood
- if endothelial cells are roughened or damaged, blood comes in contact with collage fibers in the connective tissue around endothelium of blood vessel
- activates clotting factor XII which begins sequence of reactions that then activate clotting factor x
- clotting factor x then conmbines and form prothrombinase
- prothrombinase the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways of blood clotting are identical after formation of this to produce thrombin and then fibrinogen
- extrinsic path- way
factors released by damaged tissues begin cascade; occurs rapidly if trauma is severe
- thromboplastin leaks into blood from cells outside the blood vessels and initiates the formation of prothrombinase thromboplastin begins sequence of reactions that activate clotting factor x
- once factor x is activated, it combines with factor v in the presnece of Ca to form prothrombinase
- thrombus a formation of blood clot in an unbroken vein
- thrombosis clotting in an unbroke blood vessel
- agglutinins antibodies in the plasma that bring about transfusion mismatch
- agglutination clumping of RBCs in an incompatible blood transfusion; antibodies in the recipi- ents plasma bind to the antigens on the antigens on the donated RBCs
- tricuspid valve valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle which allows blood to pass from the right atrium to the right ventricle and prevents blood from flowing back into the right atrium as the heart pumps
- vena cava the largest vein in the body, it carries blood from the body back to the heart.
- atrioventricular valves
(bicuspid valves): has two cusps which allow blood o pass from the left atrium into the left ventricle. prevents backflow of blood from the ventricles into the atria during systole
bundle branches, purkinje fibers, and ventricular myocardium. QRS complex
- contraction of ventricular contractile fibers begin after QRS complex. blood is squeezed upward toward semilunar valves
- repolarization of ventricular contractile fiber begins and spread in myocardium and produces T wave
- after t wave begins, ventricles relax, contractile fibers relax, and repolarization ends
- t wave in an ecg, this represents ventricular diastole which happens during ventricular repolarization
- stroke volume volume of blood in mL from each ventricle due to the contraction of the heart muscle which conpresses ventricles. mL/beat
- cardiac output the amount of blood the heart pumps through the circulatory system in a minute. mL/min
- Frank-Starling Law of the Heart
- end diastole vol- ume
the more the heart fills with blood during diastole, the greater the force of contraction during systole
The quantity of blood in the ventricle at the end of diastole. About 150 mL in adults.; the greater this is, the more forceful the next contraction
- venous return The amount of blood returned to the heart by the veins
- tunica media musclular connective tissue layer that displays the greatest variation among dif- ferent vessel types
- smooth muscle cells and elastic fibers regulates the diameter of the lumen
- arterioles
the smallest arteries that connect with the capillaries that regulate the flow of blood into the capillary networks of the body's tissues
- composed of thin tunica interna with small pores, internal elastic lamina that disappears at terminal end
- regulates the opposition of blood flow due to friction between blood and blood vessels
- bulk flow passive process in which large number of ions, molecules, or particles in a fluid move together in the same direction
- from high area of pressure to low
- blood colloid os- motic pressure
- systemic vascu- lar resistance
The largest driving force for pulling fluid from the interstitial spaces back into the capillaries;
- ditterence in osmotic pressure across a capillary wall is due to bloos and plasma proteins too large to pass through the gaps BCOP promotes reabsorption
refers to all of the vascular resistances ottered by systematic blood vessels
- baroreceptors pressure sensitive sensory receptors that are located in the aorta, internal carotid arteries, and other large arteries in the neck and chest
- send impulses to cardiovascular center to help regulate bp
- baroreceptors and decreased blood pressure
- baroreceptors: increase in BP
increase sns response; vasoconstriction and increased epinephrine and norepi- nephrine
- they send impulses at a fater rate
- cv center increases PNS stimulation, and decrease CNS
- result in decrease in heart rate and force of contraction to reduce cardiac output cv centers slows rate at which ends sympathetic impulses along
- perforin a protein that inserts into the plasma membrane of a target cell and create channels in the membrane. released in the granules that are released by natural killer cells
- cell bursts as a result of perforations
- neutrophils wbc that ears cells; when infection occur, they migrate to infected area
- increases vasodilation and blood vessel permeability
- antigen presentic a special class of cells that process and present exogenous antigens; include cells dendritic^ cells,^ macrophages,^ b^ cells located in places where antigen are likely to pentrate the innate defenses and enter the body (epi and dermis)
- cytotoxic t cells recognize foreign antigens combined with major histocompatibility complex
- requirements for activation of cy- totoxic t cells
- immunoglobu- lins
- require costimulation by interleukin-2 or other cytokines produced by active helper t cells that have already become bound to copies of the same antigen
- maximal activation requires presentation of antigen associated with both MHC 1 and MHC II molecules`
antibodies that belong to glycoproteins called globulins
- IgA antibodies causes phagocytosis by WBCs and prevent pathogens from adhering to mucous membranes; found in breastmilk after birth
- complement sys- tem
a defense system made of 30 proteins produced by the liver and found circulating in blood plasma and within tissues throughout the body
- complement pro- proteins in blood that help destroy pathogens by coating or puncturing them;
teins cause^ phagocytosis,^ cytolysis,^ ad^ inflammation;^ act^ in^ a^ cascade
- all cascades lead to the activation of C
- nasal meatus opening for sinus into nasal cavity
- pharynx funnel shaped tube that functions as a passageway for air and provides a resonat- ing chamber for speech sounds; houses tonsils which participate in immunolog- ical reactions againts foreign invaders
- fauces opening between oral cavity and oropharynx; opening from the mouth
- passageway for food, air, and drink
- lines with nonkeratinized squamous epithelium
- larynx voicebox; passageway that connects the laryngopharynx with the trachea
- lies in the midline of the neck anterior to the esophagus and the fourth through sixth cervical vertebrae
- epiglottis large, leaf shaped piece of elastic cartilage that is covered with epithelium
- eleavation of larynx causes this to move down and form a lid over the glottis to close it ott
- seals ott windpipe so food doesnt get inhaled
- type 1 alveolar cells
simple squamous epithelial cells that form a nearly continuous lining of the alveolar wall
- main sites for gas exchange
bronchioles and exhalation
- tidal volume the volume of one breath
- minute ventila- tion
- anatomic dead space
- alveolar ventila- tion rate
- inspiratory re- serve volume
- expiratory re- serve volume
total volume inhaled and exhaled each minute; respirtaory rate x tidal volume
the conducting airways with air that does not undergo respiratory exchange
the volume of air per minute that actually reaches the respiratory zone
Amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal volume inhalation (3100 mL in males, 1900 mL in females)
extra breath that you can exhale (1200 mL in males, 700 mL in females)
- residual volume air that remaines even in lungs bc of the subatmospheric intrapleural pressure that keep alveoli inflated
- minimal volume provides a medical and legal tool for determining whether a baby is born dead
- inspiratory ca- pacity
- carbon dioxide transport
the sum of residual colume and expiratory reserve volume ( 1200 mL + 1200 mL = 2400 mL)
most co2- is dissolved in HCO3- (70%)
haldan effect The smaller the amount of O2 bound to hemo, the greater the amount of CO2 able to bind to it and vice versa.
pre-botzinger complex
- chronic obstruc- tive pulmonary disease
- movements of the GI tract
neurons of the ventral respiratory group in the medulla that are the respiratory rhythm generator
a type of respiratory disorder characterized by chronic and recurrent obstruction of airflow, which increases airway resistance
- fourth leading cause of death
- types: emphysema and chronic bronchitis
peristalsis; muscle contractions that move food in esophagues segmentation; the contraction of circular muscles to slow progression of chyme through the system in small intestine
- layers of gi tract deep to superficial:
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscularis
- Serosa
- mucosa inner lining of GI tract
- serosa superficial layer of GI tract that are suspended in the abdominal cavity.
- serous membrane composed of aereolar connective tissue and simple squa- mous epithelium
- Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
the autonomic nerves in the walls of the GI tract;
- myenteric plexus nerve supply between the two layers of the muscularis externa; provides smooth, coordinated contraction for peristalsis
- submucosal plexus
neuronal network in submucosa of esophageal, stomach, and intestinal walls that control secretions of te organs of GI tract
num is adjusted by
- functions of liver - make bile to carry waste and breakdown fats in the si during digestion
- make certain proteins for plasma
- makes cholesterol and special proteins to help carry gats through the body
- stores and release glucose as needed
- DOES NOT STORE BILIRUBIN
- (^) Brush border en-
zymes
absorptive cells of the small intestine that synthesize several digestive enzymes and insert them in the plasma membrane of microvilli
- (^) A-dextrinase Enzyme in the membraneS of microvilli on the villi that digests dextrins into glucose
- (^) sucrase breaks down sucrose into glucose and fructose
- (^) lactase digests lactose into glucose and galactose
- (^) maltase splits maltose into two glucose and maltriose into three glucose
- functions of large - haustal churning, peristalsis intestine bacter in LI convert proteins to amino acids produce b and k vitamins absorb water and vitamins form feces and defecation
- (^) gastrin produced by g cells in lining of stomach ad upper si
- stimulates the release of gastric acid to allow stomach to break down proteins and absorb vitamins - this is inhibited when pH of gastric juice rises
- (^) Cholecystokinin a hormone that is secreted by cells in the duodenum and stimulates the release of bile into the intestine and the secretion of enzymes by the pancreas.
- respond to chyme containing amino acids from partially digested proteins and fatty acids
- phosphorylation addition of a phosphate group to a molecule to increase its potential energy
- substrate-level phosphorylation
- oxidative phosphorylation
- photophosphorylation
- glycogenesis the synthesis of glycogen. during this, glucose is first phosphorylated to glucose 6 phosphate by hexoknase
- glucose 6 phosphate is then converted to glucose 1 phosphate, then to uridine diphosphate glucose, then finally glycogen
- gluconogenesis the process by which glucose formd from noncarbs (triglycerides, lactic acid, and certain AA converted in liver)
- glucose is newly formed 0 lactic acid and amino acids are converted into pyruvic acid which then synthesize into glucose or enter krebs cycle stimulated by cortisol
- lipoproteins lipid and protein combination.
- triglycerides are hydrophobic and need to attach to protein to dissolve
- they are spherical particles with an outer shell of apoproteins phospholipids and cholesterol surrounding an inner core of tryglicerides and other lipids
- lypolysis the splitting of triglycerides into glycerol and fatty acids for muscle, liver, and adipose tissue to oxidize fatty acids and produce ATP
- lipogenesis when liver cells and adipose cells synthesize lipids from glucose or acids
- stimulated by insulin
- occurs when individuals consume more
net filtration pressure
glomerular blood hydrostatic pressure
capsular hydro- static pressure
blood colloid os- motic pressure
10 mmHg
blood pressure in glomerular capillaries that promotes filtration by forcing water and solutes in blood plasma through the filtration membrane
the hydrostatic pressure exerted against the filtration membrane by fluid already in capsular space and renal tubule. it opposes filtration and represents back pressure of 15 mmHg
due to the presence of proteins such as albumin, globulins, and fibrinogen in the blood plasma. opposes filtration
- deamination amino acids go through this in order to enter kreb's cycle; where amino group (NH2) must be removed
- in hepatocytes of liver to produce ammonia - ammonia>urea> expels into urine
- renal tubule parts
- aldosterone and low BP
- Atrial Natriutetic Peptide (ANP)
- urea recycling
- proximal convoluted tubule
- nephron loop (loop of henle)
- distal covoluted tubule
- walls of the atterent arterioles are stretched less - aldosterone released to reabsorb more Na+ and Cl- and secrete more K+ - bc of this, more water is reabsorbed which causes increase in bv and later bp
stretches the atria and occurs when blood volume increases
- increases the capillary surface area available for filtration when bp increases, GFR increase due to the stretching of atria, allowing for ANP secretion`
- The percentage of urine that is water is approxi- mately.
the constant transfer of urea between segments of the renal tubule and the interstitial fluid of the medulla
95%
- micturition reflex when the nerve impulses transmit and propagate to the micturition center in the sacral spinal cords S2 and S3 to urinate
- nerve impulses cause contraction of the detrusor muscle and relaxation of the internal urethral sphincter muscle
- micturition The discharge of urine from the urinary bladder
- occurs via combo of involuntary and voluntary muscle contractions exceeding 200-400 mL causes pressure that send nerve impulses
- urination factors contraction of urinary bladder and relaxation of sphincters
- where water is most abundant
- Potassium major functions
- normal pH range in arterial blood
- Temperature regulation of testes
intracellular fluid (cytosol)
- most abundant cations in intracellular fluid establish resting membrane potential and in repolarization help maintain normal intracellular fluid volume K+ is moved in or out of cells and replaced with H+ ions to help regulate pH of the body fluid
7.35- 7.
cremaster muscle: contract to elevate testes and move closer to pelvis dartos muscle: causes scotum to become tight pampiniform plexus
- sperm pathway testes:
- Seminiferous tubules,
- Epididymis,
- Vas Deferens, 4. Ejaculatory Duct,
- Nothing,
- Urethra,
- Penis
- uterine tube function
provide route for sperm to reach the ovum and transport secondary oocytes and fertilized ova from the ovaries to the uterus
- estrogens secreted by ovarian follices to promote the development and maintenance of female repro structures, secondary sex char, breasts release GnRH, LH, FSH
- corpus albicans degenerated corpus luteum
- type of birth con- trol that pre- vents pregnancy but not inception
- sperm capacita- tion
emergency contraceptive (??)
in the female reproductive tract where the sperm's tail beats more vigorously and prepare its plasma membrane to fuse with the oocyte's plasma membrane
- secretion from femal repro tract during this result in removal of cholesterol, glycoproteins, and proteins around head
- only capacitated sperm are capable of being attracted by and responsing to chemical factors produced by surrounding cells of ovulated oocyte
- cleavage of zy- gote first stage
- changes during pregnancy
- Stages of labour and birth
- atrial premature complexes
- hormones in- volved in regula- tion of GFR
- external inter- costal muscle
- order of filtrate flow
two cell stage; consists of zona pellucida with polarbodies and two blastomeres
always increase: stroke volume, cardiac output, heart rate, blood volume in order to meet the additional demands of the fetus for nutrients and o
- dilation of the cervix
- baby moves down into the vaginal canal
- the delivery of the placenta
common kind of heart arrhythmia where there are Premature contractions of the atria initiated by one of the atria from a location other than the normal sinus heartbeat, which originates in the sinoatrial node
- ANP: decreases BP and increases GFR
- angiotensin
- aldosterone
- renin 2-4: increase BP and decreases GFR
A muscle that raises the rib cage, decreasing pressure inside the chest cavity
- glomerulus,
- Bowman's capsule,
- proximal convoluted tubule,
- loop of Henle,
- distal convoluted tubule,
- collecting tubule (where filtrate becomes urine)
- minor calyx urine is formed by nephrons that first drain into this
