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AQA PSYCHOLOGY A-LEVEL PAPER 2 EXAM
QUESTIONS AND CORRECT ANSWERS
"Classical Conditioning - CORRECT ANSWER Pavlov - When a neutral stimulus is
consistently paired with an unconditional stimulus so that it takes on the properties on the stimulus and is able to produced a conditioned response"
"Classical Conditioning steps - CORRECT ANSWER UCS -> UCR
NS -> No Response UCS+NS -> UCR CS -> CR"
"Features of CC - CORRECT ANSWER - If time interval is too great between conditioning it
does not work
- CR will become extinct in the absence of the UCS after a while
- If extinct and paired again they pair more quickly (Spontaneous Recovery)
- Stimulus generalisation, CR is created to things similar to CS"
"Vicarious Reinforcement - CORRECT ANSWER Individuals learn about the likely
consequences by observing a model's experiences and adjust their behaviour to obtain the same experience"
"The Role of the meditational Processes - CORRECT ANSWER Observer forms a mental
representation pf the behaviour displayed of the model and the probable consequences it will also happen to them"
"Evaluation of Social Learning Theory - CORRECT ANSWER - Applications in human
behaviour
- research support (Bandura)
- Problems with causality, it may not be observing but rather people already have this a try to find people similar
- Approach disregards other potential influences like gender"
"Bandura Procedures - CORRECT ANSWER Children were exposed to aggressive or non
aggressive models interacting with a bobo doll"
"Bandura Findings - CORRECT ANSWER Children who had aggressive models were
aggressive to the doll Children who had non-aggressive models were not aggressive to the doll"
"Cognitive - CORRECT ANSWER Refers to mental processes such as perception, memory and
reasoning"
"Schema - CORRECT ANSWER A cognitive framework that helps us organise and interpret
information"
"Why are Schemas useful? - CORRECT ANSWER They help us make sense of new
information by filling in gaps"
"Theoretical Models - CORRECT ANSWER Pictorial representations of cognitive processes
based on research evidence"
"Computer Model - CORRECT ANSWER Computer analogy of input process storage output to
represent the human cognitive"
"Cognitive Neuroscience - CORRECT ANSWER non-invasive imaging techniques such as PET
and fMRI scans to help psychologists understand how the brain works"
"PET - CORRECT ANSWER Positron emission tomography"
"fMRI - CORRECT ANSWER Functional Magnetic Resonance imaging"
"The Brain - CORRECT ANSWER Co-ordinates the functioning of the body"
"Frontal Lobes - CORRECT ANSWER Functions like speech, though and learning"
"Parietal Lobes - CORRECT ANSWER Processes sensory information like touch, temperature
and pain"
"Occipital lobes - CORRECT ANSWER Processes visual information"
"Temporal lobes - CORRECT ANSWER Involved with hearing and memory"
"Evaluation of the Biological Approach - CORRECT ANSWER - Scientific
- Application into Neurochem, drug development and psychological rhythms
beginning of ego development Expulsion of waste"
"Phallic - CORRECT ANSWER 3-6 years
Energy is focused on genitals Oedipus Complex Castration Anxiety"
"Latent - CORRECT ANSWER 6-12 years
Developing mastery of the world around them repress early years"
"Genital - CORRECT ANSWER 12+ years
fixing of Sexual energy on genitals beginning of adult life and forming relationships"
"Evaluations of the psychodynamic approach - CORRECT ANSWER - Application in
controlling the masses and therapy
- case study approach is pioneering
- Scientific support because of use of scientific methodology in case studies
- gender bias approach to men
- Culture bias to western culture e.g. china tends to ignore feelings while we have therapy"
"Free Will - CORRECT ANSWER The ability to act at one's own discretion"
"Hierarchy of needs - CORRECT ANSWER Motivational theory proposed by Maslow
Self actualisation Esteem Love Safety Psychological"
"Psychological Needs - CORRECT ANSWER Breathing, food, water"
"Safety Needs - CORRECT ANSWER Security, resources, morality, health"
"Love needs - CORRECT ANSWER Friendship, family"
"Esteem need - CORRECT ANSWER Self esteem, confidence, achievement"
"Self-Actualisation - CORRECT ANSWER Peak experience
Creativity, problem solving, spontaneity"
"The Self - CORRECT ANSWER Our personal identity"
"Congruence - CORRECT ANSWER The similarity between yourself and your ideal self"
"Conditions of worth - CORRECT ANSWER Conditions imposed on someone in order to earn
positive regard"
"Unconditional positive regard - CORRECT ANSWER love and acceptance no matter what"
"Conditional Positive Regard - CORRECT ANSWER love and acceptance for a reason"
"Pilot Study - CORRECT ANSWER A small-scale trial run of a study to test aspects of design"
"Repeated Measures Design - CORRECT ANSWER One group does all trials"
"Limitations of repeated measures design - CORRECT ANSWER Order effect e.g. practicing
trial or getting tired Guessing the purpose of the test in second trial leads to demand charecteristics Can be solved by counterbalancing"
"Counterbalancing - CORRECT ANSWER AB or ABBA when repeating an experiment it
ensures each condition is tested in equal amounts"
"Independant Groups Design - CORRECT ANSWER Two Different Groups do two different
trials"
"Limitations of independent group design - CORRECT ANSWER Cannot control participant
variables Needs more participants Can be solved by randomly allocating"
"Quasi Experiments - CORRECT ANSWER The IV is something that just exists and the DV is
tested
"Advantages of mode - CORRECT ANSWER It can be used with any type of data
Not affected by extreme scores"
"Advantages of median - CORRECT ANSWER Easy to calculate
not affected by extreme scores Works on ordinal data"
"Evaluation of Natural and Quasi Experiments - CORRECT ANSWER - Lack of control of the
IV
- You cannot use random allocation due to biases
- Sample may have unique characteristics which would bias results"
"Range - CORRECT ANSWER the difference between the highest and lowest scores in a
distribution"
"Advantages of range - CORRECT ANSWER Easy to calculate
includes extremes"
"standard deviation - CORRECT ANSWER a measure of variability that describes an average
distance of every score from the mean"
"Advantages of standard deviation - CORRECT ANSWER Takes all exact values into account
Not difficult to calculate with a calculator"
"Disadvantage of a mean - CORRECT ANSWER Can easily be distorted by extreme values
It cannot be used with nominal data"
"Disadvantages of median - CORRECT ANSWER Not as sensitive as the mean because exact
values are not reflected"
"Disadvantages of the mode - CORRECT ANSWER does not use all the data values
May not exist if there is not a more common value"
"Disadvantages of range - CORRECT ANSWER Does not take into account distribution of
numbers"
"Disadvantages of standard deviation - CORRECT ANSWER May hide some characteristics of
data set e.g. extreme values"
"Demand Characteristics - CORRECT ANSWER A cue that makes participants consciously
aware of the aims of the study and thus act how the aims tell them to"
"Evaluation of correlation - CORRECT ANSWER - no conclusion can be made from one
variable causing another
- correlation does not equal causation
- intervening variables may be the cause
- lacks internal/external validity
- correlations are useful for following trends
- correlations are useful for finding significance"
"external Validity - CORRECT ANSWER extent to which we can generalise findings to real-
world settings"
"Stratified Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER Participants are picked based on there proportion
to the rest of the population"
"Evaluation of Stratified Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER - Representative
"Key features of science - CORRECT ANSWER Hypothesis can be tested
Empirical Objective Systematic"
"Key features of non Science - CORRECT ANSWER Not testable
"Dealing with protection from harm - CORRECT ANSWER - Avoid risks
- Stop study if harm is suspected
- Harm may not be apparent at the time"
"Dealing with Confidentiality - CORRECT ANSWER - Researchers should not record names
- you can normally work out people's identity from location"
"Dealing with Privacy - CORRECT ANSWER - Do not study anyone without consent unless in
public
- no universal agreement as what is public"
"Naturalistic Observations - CORRECT ANSWER Observed in an everyday setting"
"Controlled observation - CORRECT ANSWER Some variables are regulated by the researcher
to investigate certain variables in an everyday state"
"Over observation - CORRECT ANSWER Participants are aware they are being studied"
"Covert observations - CORRECT ANSWER participants are not aware they are being
studied"
"Evaluation of observational techniques - CORRECT ANSWER - observing is subjective
"Evaluation of naturalistic and controlled observations - CORRECT ANSWER - Naturalistic is
high in ecological validity
- There is little control of what is happening
- Controlled can focus on particular aspects of behaviour
- Environment might feel unnatural"
"Evaluation of overt and overt observation - CORRECT ANSWER - covert observation makes
behaviour more natural
- covert is unethical because they do not know they are being watched
- Overt observations may create demand charecteristics
- Overt is more ethical"
"Participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER Observer is part of the group being observed,
but the other participants do not know"
"Non-participant observation - CORRECT ANSWER The observer observes from a distance
and does not interact"
"Evaluation of non-participant and participant - CORRECT ANSWER - non-participant is
likely to be more objective
- participant can give insight into insider details might might loose track of the study"
"Unstructured observations - CORRECT ANSWER Researcher records all relevant behaviour
but has no system of recording it"
"Structured observations - CORRECT ANSWER Uses various systems to observe and record
behaviour e.g. behavioural categories"
"Behavioural categories - CORRECT ANSWER Dividing target behaviour into a subset of
specific and operationalised behaviours
- objective
- cover everything
- mutually exclusive"
"Event Sampling - CORRECT ANSWER Counting the number of times a certain behaviour
happens e.g. counting how many times a person smiles in 10 minutes"
"Time sampling - CORRECT ANSWER Recording behaviour in time frames e.g. person is
smiling at that exact point, now i wait 30 seconds to look again"
"Questionnaires - CORRECT ANSWER Data collected through written questions"
"Structured Interview - CORRECT ANSWER Questions are decided in advance"
"Unstructured Interview - CORRECT ANSWER New questions develop as the interview
progresses"
"Interview - CORRECT ANSWER face-to-face interaction to collect data"
"Open questions - CORRECT ANSWER Questions with free response to the person"
- allows us to reach an overall conclusion
- studies may not be comparable"
"Evaluation of case studies - CORRECT ANSWER - gives us in-depth rich data
- good for investigating rare human behaviour
- difficult to generalise as everyone is unique
- evidence could be unreliable if recollection of past events is involved"
"Evaluation of content analysis - CORRECT ANSWER - high ecological validity
"Evaluation of the mean - CORRECT ANSWER - sensitive
- cannot be used with nominal data"
"Evaluation of the median - CORRECT ANSWER - not affected by extreme scores
- not as sensitive as the mean"
"Evaluation of the mode - CORRECT ANSWER - unaffected by extreme values
- not useful when there are several modes in data"
"Evaluation of the Range - CORRECT ANSWER - easy to calculate
- affected by extreme values"
"Evaluation of standard deviation - CORRECT ANSWER - precise as it takes into account all
data
- may hide some characteristics of data"
"Nominal - CORRECT ANSWER Categorical data"
"Oridnal - CORRECT ANSWER Ordered data that can be ranked"
"Interval - CORRECT ANSWER Data is measured in equal intervals of measurement e.g.
time"
"Ratio - CORRECT ANSWER True zero point quantities e.g. temperature"
"Evaluation of quantitative data - CORRECT ANSWER - easy to analyse
- data may oversimplify reality"
"Evaluation of qualitative data - CORRECT ANSWER - provide detailed information
"Evaluation of primary data - CORRECT ANSWER - control of data
- very lengthy and expensive process"
"Evaluation of secondary data - CORRECT ANSWER - easier
- may not fit the needs of the study"
"Peer review - CORRECT ANSWER Independant experts to access the qaulity and validity of
your research"
"Peer review purpose - CORRECT ANSWER 1. allocation of funding
- publication
- assessing research ratings"
"Evaluation of peer review - CORRECT ANSWER - difficult to find an expert in your field
-Anonymity of the reviewer can lead to researchers trying to ruin your study work because they don't like you
"Economic psychology - CORRECT ANSWER The development, promotion and application of
psuchology for the public good"
"Applications of economic psychology - CORRECT ANSWER - social change to bring positive
changes on the economy
- cognitive interview to reduce expenses of wrongful arrests
- Bowlby's theory helps raising children to become productive members of society
- mental health costs
- Biopsychology helps make smart machines to help in the work force"
"Statistical test for independent nominal - CORRECT ANSWER Chi Squared"
"Statistical test for independent ordinal - CORRECT ANSWER Mann-Whitney"
"Statistical test for independent interval - CORRECT ANSWER Unrelated T test"
"Statistical test for related nominal - CORRECT ANSWER Sign Test"
"Related tests - CORRECT ANSWER Matched/Repeated experimental designs"
"Design - CORRECT ANSWER Experimental design , IV and different conditions, DV and
controls This goes in the method"
"Participants - CORRECT ANSWER Outline target population and type of sample, including
how you obtained the sample This goes in method"
"Procedure - CORRECT ANSWER Describe the precise procedure you followed when carrying
out the research"
"Results - CORRECT ANSWER Present the descriptive statistics followed by the inferential
statistics A table can be used to display descriptive statistics but do not include raw data"
"Discussion - CORRECT ANSWER Outline findings in plain english and relate results to
hypothesis Then evaluate your study and conclude"
"References - CORRECT ANSWER A list of all sources cited in the essay in alphabetical order"
"Materials - CORRECT ANSWER Describe materials used e.g. surveys, computer equipment
or word lists"
"Structure of a lab report - CORRECT ANSWER Title Page
Abstract Introduction Method
- design
- participants
- materials
- procedure Results Discussion References"
"Sensory Neurones - CORRECT ANSWER Carry impulses from sensory receptor"
"Relay Neurons - CORRECT ANSWER Allow sensory and motor neurones to communicate"
"Motor Neurones - CORRECT ANSWER Forms synapses with muscles and control their
contractions"
"Neuron structure - CORRECT ANSWER "
"Brain Localisation - CORRECT ANSWER "
"Endocrine Glands - CORRECT ANSWER Produce and secrete hromones"
"Hormones - CORRECT ANSWER Chemical messengers that influence many processes"
"Pituitary gland - CORRECT ANSWER produces hormones to influence the release of other
hormones from other glands It is controlled by the hypothalmus"
"Hormones released by the pituitary gland - CORRECT ANSWER ACTH stress response
LH and FSH produce oestrogen and progesterone or testosterone and sperm"
"Adrenal Glands - CORRECT ANSWER Made up of the adrenal cortex and the adrenal
medulla"
"Adrenal Cortex - CORRECT ANSWER outer part of the adrenal gland
produces cortisol which supports important bodily functions including breathing and anti- inflamitory"
"Adrenal Medulla - CORRECT ANSWER Inner part of the adrenal gland
Produces adrenaline"
"Amygdala - CORRECT ANSWER Associates sensory signals with anger and fear and sends
distress signals to the hypothalmus"
"Response to sudden acute stressors - CORRECT ANSWER SNS is triggered, adrenal medulla
is triggered and adrenaline is sent around the bloodstream Breathing increases, heart beats faster, kicks in release of glucose
In the Parietal Lobe"
"Visual Area - CORRECT ANSWER receives visual stimuli that originates on the retinas of the
eyes (primary visual cortex) and interprets the visual stimuli (visual association area) In the occipital lobe"
"Auditory Area - CORRECT ANSWER analyses and processes acoustic information
In the temporal lobe"
"Broca's area - CORRECT ANSWER Controls language expression, tongue and mouth
In the frontal lobe"
"Wernicke's area - CORRECT ANSWER controls language reception
In the temporal lbe"
"Broca and Tan case study - CORRECT ANSWER Patient could only say the syllable "tan"
He could understand spoken language but could not speak nor write"
"Evaluation of localisation of function - CORRECT ANSWER - Lashley, basic motor functions
were localised but more complex functions like learning were holistic
- It is less able each individual part but how well they can work together that will determine how well the brain can work
- Broca's/Wernicke's aphasia
- individual differences in the size and power of language areas
- Language production may not be just Broca's area, Dronkers et al MRI imaging"
"infradian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER biological rhythms that occur once a month or
once a season"
"Example of infradian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER menstrual cycle
seasons"
"The menstrual cycle - CORRECT ANSWER Infradian Rhythm
- around 28 days
- ovulation occurs half way through the cycle
- After ovulation progesterone increases in preparation for possible implantation of the ova into the uterus"
"Evaluation of Ultradian Rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER - Individual differences in sleep
stages are attributed to differences in non-biological factors, however some may be genetic Tucker et al
- Basic Rest Activity Cycle is a theory that the stages of sleep continue into the day even when we are awake, the difference is we move through stages of alertness"
"Ultradian Rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER Biological rhythms that occur more than once a
day"
"Evaluation of circadian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER - individual differences, cycles can
vary from 13 to 65 hours and reach peaks at different times
- Research Methodology flaw, participants are no totally isolated from artificial light in most experiments as dim light was suggested to not affect them but this may not be true Czeisler et al found it was not -Chronotherapeutics, the study of how timing affects drugs is a useful application
- Temperature may be more important than light setting circadian rhythms, light may be a trigger but change in temp sends more powerful signals to the Buhr et al"
"Sleep Stages (REM) - CORRECT ANSWER An Ultradian Rhythm
- Cycle repeats itself every 90 minutes
- Stage 1: light sleep, muscle activity slows
- Stage 2: Breathing and heart rate slows
- Stage 3: Deep Sleep begins
- Stage 4: very deep sleep, brain produces delta waves
- Stage 5: REM, dreaming occurs"
"Examples of ultradian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER REM, NREM, digestion"
"Evaluation of Infradian rhythms - CORRECT ANSWER - The menstrual cycle influences
mate choice, Penton-Voak et al found in the cycle women prefer more masculine faces as it shows good genes for short term meetings so they are passed to offspring, but prefer more feminine faces for long term relationships because they are seen as kinder
