Download About Sociology Merton and more Schemes and Mind Maps Sociology in PDF only on Docsity!
Robert K. Merton(1910-2003)
Student and lifelong critic of Parsons Merton questioned Parsons’s theory building strategy, i.e., the way Parsons has attempted to develop his theory. Parson’s work appears to be motivated by a desire t address all practical problems of social life. It’s a premature theorizing without empirical basis, based on speculations. He says that such an all embracing theory as developed by Parsons is not a theory in true sense. It is hardly anything more than a general orientation towards data, suggesting the type of variables we must somehow take into account in the course of research. Merton argues that Parsons’s attempt at building such a general theory is premature, sterile and futile because the pre-requisite empirical research that is essential to develop such a general theory has simply not been done. Parsons is trying to be the Einstein of sociology, while sociology is yet to produce a Kepler. In place Merton advocated for Middle Range Theories (MRT) building. He argues that MRT does not fragment knowledge but integrate them. He gave example of Durkheim empirical research on Suicide where he gave four empirical generalization on rate of suicide: Protestants>Catholics Unmarried>Married Men >Women Peacetime conditions>Wartime conditions Durkheim combined all above into a theory with relation: Rate of Suicide∞1/Solidarity Merton says that macro-theories will arrive, but later after enough empirical researches have been done. Merton has sometimes being called as a sociologist of sociologists because of emphasis on methodological rigour. Although Parsons is regarded as the most important structural Functionalist Theorist, Robert Merton (Parsons student and his lifelong critic) criticized some
extreme and indefensible aspects of structure functionalism and provided new conceptual insights which helped giving Structural Functional-ism a continuing usefulness of relevance. Merton rejected the use of term Functionalism and in place used Functional Analysis as a sociological methodology and not an ideology (-ism is used for an Ideology). Merton criticized the three major postulates of Functional Analysis developed by anthropologists such as Malinowski and Redcliffe Brown: First postulate: Postulate of Functional Unity of Society-It holds that all standardized social and cultural beliefs and practices are functional for society as a whole as well as for individuals in society. Merton argued that it may be true for small, primitive societies. This generalization cannot be extended to larger, more complex societies. Merton argues that functionalists should specify the unit for which the given social or cultural item is functional. Moreover, they must make it clear that a given item may have diverse consequences, functional as well as dysfunctional for individuals or sub-groups. Second Postulate: Postulate of Universal Functionalism-It holds that all standardized social and cultural norms and structures have positive functions. Merton argued that this contradicts what we find in the real world, not every structure, customs, ideas, beliefs and so forth have positive functions. Merton argues that the functionalists must focus on a net balance of functional consequences, positive as well as negative, but, by no means, positive only. Third Postulate: Postulate of Indispensability- It holds that all standardized aspects of society not only have positive functions but also indispensable parts of working whole. This postulate leads to the idea that all structures and functions are necessary for society. Merton argues that no cultural form is indispensable forever because the function it claims to fulfil can be fulfilled better by alternative cultural forms. A functional analyst, Merton says, should assume that nothing, in fact, is indispensable. There are functional alternatives, equivalents or substitutes. In other words, the same function served by a given item, under changed circumstances, may be fulfilled by another item. For example, in modern societies where women too work outside the home, some functions of the family such as, childcare can be performed by other institutions like creches, daycare centres, and so on.
the crime during those hours, but on the other hand it may breed and promote inefficiency in the work places. Merton also argues that a Functional Analyst should equally focus on static and dynamic aspects of social structure and institutions. He/she should know that nothing is indispensable, functional alternatives are possible, not everything is functional, there are many social and cultural items which have dysfunctional consequences. Dysfunctions according to Merton implying the concept of strain, stress and tension on the structural level and therefore provide an analytical approach to the study of dynamics and change. Merton also argues that a Functional Analyst should not have intrinsic commitment to any ideological position. Manifest and Latent Functions The concepts of manifest and latent functions were developed by Merton for more critical functional analysis. Manifest functions are those that are intended(expected, culturally recognized, subjective disposition) whereas Latent functions are unintended(unexpected, hidden, objective consequences). Functions have both intended and unintended consequences. Although everyone is aware of the intended consequences, but a sociological analysis is required to uncover the unintended consequences. Merton made it clear that unanticipated consequences and latent functions are not the same. A latent function is a type of unanticipated consequence that is functional for a designated system, but anticipated consequence may be functional, dysfunctional or non-functional. Merton argued that a structure may be dysfunctional for the system as a whole yet may continue to exist because it is functional for a part of the social system. For example discrimination against females is generally functional for males. Merton’s evolution of notion of Latent Function and Manifest Function and their distinction gives a new meaning to Functional analysis. This distinction helps sociologists to go beyond the common sense perception of the world. The notion of Latent Function opens our eyes, it enables us to see the deeper, hidden meaning of many of our social practices and cultural beliefs. It changes the prevalent notion of rationality and irrationality, morality and immorality. Because
even in an irrational and immoral practice we can see latent and necessary social function being fulfilled. The distinction between Latent and Manifest functions helps the sociologist to make a critical analysis of any social phenomena. Merton put the example of Hopi tribe of North America engaged in a complex series of rituals and dance prior to the planting their crops to produce abundant rainfall (Manifest Function). For a secular rationalist the rainfall does not depend on any ceremonial and he/she may conclude that the these ceremonials reflect nothing but irrational and superstitious belief of the Hopi tribe. Merton here wants sociologists to look into deeper hidden meanings behind the ceremonials. The ceremonials do not produce rainfall but these enable the scattered members of the group to assemble together and engage in economic activity. This reinforces their group identity and solidarity. This is the Latent Function of the ceremony. Imagine yourself participating in a socio-religious festival like Christmas, Diwali or Eid and try to see its Latent Function and ask yourself how it helps you to increase your perceptions about rituals and festivals. Merton argues that sociologists are not lay persons. With their special skills, particularly with their awareness of the notion of Latent Function, they rediscover new areas of enquiry worthy of exploration. Generally, the social actors are content with immediate Manifest Function (culturally defined) and do not bother about things having hidden, latent and deeper consequences. But the sociologist’s task is to look for the hidden meanings and aspects of the cultural items and social practices. For example commercial films may be absurd with their implausible story, music , dance, romance and fight scenes, they may still have some positive functions. These films may strengthen the rol of motherhood, celebrate the ultimate triumph of good over evil and reinforce ideals which many fear may get lost in a rapidly changing world. It is in this regard that commercial films may have latent functions and act like a safety valve, restoring faith. Merton argues that the distinction between the Latent Functiona and Manifest Function help the sociologist to open the horizons of sociological knowledge. Merton puts the example of Threston Veblen’s famous work “Theory of Leisure Class (1899)” in which author sought to examine the Latent Function of the pattern of conspicuous consumption. Veblen’s analysis shows how a sociologist
CONCEPT of REFERENCE GROUP Group: A network of relationships. For example, as a student we belong to a group of other students and our behavior is being shaped by the patterned expectations of the groups of students. This is what stabilizes our identity as a student. Similarly Family is an important primary group that shapes our behavior and expectations in the form of a series of relationship with our parents, sibling and other members. Reference Group: A Reference Group is one to which we always refer in order to evaluate our achievements. Our role performance, aspirations and ambitions. It is the Reference Group that tells us why others are more powerful and prestigious than us. Thus in order to evaluate our conditions, achievements and performance we refer to a Reference Group of which we may be member (Membership Reference Group) or not (Non-membership Reference Group). For example I am a student and remain burdened with my course materials and examinations. I am really working hard and I have no time to relax. Then I come to know about an altogether different group, say, a group of cricketers who are as young as I am. And I see that these cricketers play cricket, go abroad, enjoy life, earn money and media highlight them. The success story of the group of cricketers will fascinate me more. By comparing with myself with them I will feel that as a student I am deprived. The cricketers, then begin to act like my reference group. As a result I will begin to give more time to cricket than my course materials with hope that one day I would become a cricketer and lead that kind of life. Thus MG and NMG both work like RG. THE CONCEPT OF RELATIVE DEPRIVATION: The concept of Relative Deprivation was originally developed by Smuel A. Stouffer and his colleague in their work “The American Soldier” in which they conducted studies on American soldiers during WWII. They found that American soldiers in high status (officers) were more complaining and very less satisfied with their situation despite better working conditions and more promising career opportunities than those American soldiers which were in low status units (foot soldiers) and in worst situation (at war fronts) but were of high morale.
Merton’s concept of Relative Deprivation was based on his examination of Stouffer work. Merton combined the two terms: “Relative Deprivation” and “Reference Group” and argued that Deprivation is relative and relative to Reference Group. Merton argued that this was because the soldiers in high status units compared their situation with their civilian counterparts who were enjoying comfortable life with family and were economically better position. On the other hand those soldiers who were in low status units and were in worst situation (on war front) compared themselves with war heroes and inspired by them. CONCEPT OF GROUP AND GROUP MEMBERSHIP Merton speaks of three characteristics of a Group and Group Membership (i) Frequency of interaction: Members of the group frequently interact with one another. (ii) Interacting persons define themselves as members. (iii) Persons in interactions are defined by others as ‘belonging to the group’. These others include follow members as well as non-members. CONCEPT OF NON-MEMBERSHIP Non-members frequently orient themselves to groups other than their own in shaping their behavior and evaluation. According to Merton non-members can be divided into three categories: (i) Aspiring for the membership. (ii) Indifferent towards affiliation. (iii) Motivated to remain unaffiliated with the group. For example an Industrialist owning a factory is naturally a non-member of workers group. There are three possibilities of his orientation towards the workers group: First-sensitive to the situation of workers and willing to join the group, Second- He will remain indifferent to the workers condition, Third- exploiting the workers for personal monetary gain and making their situation more worse. ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION Merton speaks of Anticipatory Socialization in the context of Non-membership Reference Group. It refers to the adopting the values, lifestyles of a non- membership reference group. According to Merton, anticipatory socialization
Reference Individuals: People select not only reference groups, but select reference individuals also. This is because individuals with their charisma, status, glamour often attract people. For instance, cricketers as a group may not have much appeal to us, but Sachin Tendulkar as an individual may do. Thus, in spite of the fact that cricketers as such do not constitute our reference group. Sachin Tendulkar may, however, become a reference individual. Selection of Reference Groups among Membership Groups : We belong to innumerable groups, right from your own family to a neighbourhood club, to a caste group, to a political party, to a religious organisation. But not all membership groups are equally important, only some of them are selected as reference groups by us. How do we select? Merton evolves a provisional list of twenty six group properties. Some major group properties include: degree of distinctness of the group, degree of engagement that the group encourages or promotes among its members, expected duration of the group, its open or closed character, degree of social differentiation, and degree of expected conformity to the norms of the group. For example, our degree of engagement with our family members is much more than, say, with the members of a film club and so it is quite likely that, as far as the major decisions of life are concerned, not the film club, but our family is likely to serve as a reference group. Likewise, a membership group which is not going to last for long (for instance, a class of undergraduate students which is not going to last for more than four years) is unlikely to be chosen as a reference group. But, instead, a group, which is, really going to last, a kinship, or a caste group, or a professional group, does indeed serve as a reference group. Selection of Non-membership Groups: According to Merton, there are primarily three factors determine the Selection of Non-membership Group: First- Capacity of the non-membership group to ‘confer some power and prestige in society. For example the university teachers in India often compare their lot with the IAS Officers. In other words, for the university teachers, the IAS officers become a non-membership reference group. The reason is simple. In terms of the institutional structure of modern Indian society, the IAS officers enjoy more power, more prestige than the university teachers do. The non-membership group that does not have much power or prestige hardly becomes a reference group.
Second- “isolates” in a group motivated to adopt the values of non- membership group as ‘normative frames of reference’. The ‘isolates’, because of their sensitivity or rebelliousness or because of their intense urge for mobility, do not remain contented with the groups to which they belong. As a result, it is more likely that they would be stimulated to adopt the values of non-membership groups. For example, Merton speaks of ‘the disenchanted member of the elite’ who adopts the political orientation of a class less powerful than his own. Third- a ‘social system with relatively high rate of social mobility’ will tend to make far widespread orientation to non-membership groups as reference groups. This is because only in an open system people come to know of groups other than their own and feel tempted to alter their positions continually and they have enough freedom to mobilize themselves. Variation in Reference Groups for Differing Values and Norms: Merton argues that it should not be assuemed that the same reference group uniformly serves as reference group for the same individuals in every phase of their behaviour”. For example we choose the Gandhians as our reference group because we feel that the Gandhians are a dedicated lot and we accept their politico-economic ideals. But that does not mean that we give our consent to everything that the Gandhians do. We may not agree with their ‘conservative’ attitude towards life - brahmacharya, vegetarianism etc. Regarding our life-style, food habit or sexual morals, we may take the liberals as our reference group. So, ultimately, the choice of reference groups depends on the nature and quality of norms and values one is interested in. Selection of Reference Groups among Status-categories or Sub-groups involving Sustained Interaction : Merton argues that , the selection of reference groups is complex. There may be divergent opinions on love marriage in your own family. Your parents perhaps dislike it, your elder brother is ambivalent, and your sister gives her consent to it. Under these circumstances, it is quite likely that instead of relying on your own family, you tend to give your consent to what your generation thinks, the way young boys and girls like you think of marriage. This explains a phenomenon called ‘generation gap’.
(i) Conformity: it is the most common response. Members of the society conform both to success goals and to the normative means of reaching them. They strive for success by means of accepted channels. (ii) Innovation: This response rejects normative means of achieving success and turns to deviant means, in particular, crime. Merton argues that members of the lower social strata are most likely to select this route to success. They are least likely to succeed via conventional channels and so there is greater pressure upon them to deviate. Their educational qualifications are usually low and their jobs provide little opportunity for advancement. Since their way is blocked, they innovate, turning to crime, which promises greater rewards than legitimate means. Merton argues that membership of the lower strata is not sufficient in itself to produce deviance. Only in societies such as the USA, where all members share the same success goals, those who are imperfectly socialized innovate so that they abandon institutional means while retaining success-aspirations. (iii) Ritualism: Those who select this alternative are deviant because they have largely abandoned the commonly held success goals. The pressure to adopt this alternative is greatest for members of the lower middle class whose occupations provide less opportunity for success, but they have been strongly socialized to conform to social norms. This prevents them from turning to crime. Unable to innovate, and with jobs that offer little opportunity for advancement, they abandon their success goals. Merton put the example of low-grade bureaucrats, ultra-respectable but stuck in a rut. They are sticklers for the rules, cling to red tape, conform to the outward standards of middle class respectability, but have given up striving for success. Rituals are deviant because they have rejected the success goals held by most members of the society. (iv) Retreatism: It applies to psychotics, tramps, chronic drunkards and drug addicts. They have strongly internalized both the cultural goals and the institutionalized means yet are unable to achieve success. They resolve this conflict by abandoning both the goals and the means of reaching them. They are ‘drop out’ of society, defeated and
resigned to their failure. They are deviant in two ways: they have rejected both the cultural goals and the institutionalized means. (v) Rebellion: It is a rejection of both the success goals and the institutionalized means, and it replace them with different goals and means. Those who adopt this alternative wish to create a new society. Merton argues that it is typically members of a rising class rather than the most depressed strata who organized the resentful and rebellious into a revolutionary group. To summarize, Merton claimed his analysis showed how the culture and structure of society generate deviance. The overemphasis upon the cultural goals of financial success and high status in American society, at the expense of institutionalized means, creates a tendency towards anomie. This tendency exerts pressure for deviance, a pressure which varies depending on a person’s position in the class structure. Evaluation of Merton: Critics have attacked Merton for neglecting the power relationships in society as a whole, those who are powerful makes laws that guarantee their success. Merton has also been criticized for assuming that there is value consensus in American society and that people only deviate as a result of structural strain. Taylor, Walton and Young believe that Merton’s theory cannot account for politically motivated criminals(separatists, terrorists) who break the law because of commitment to their cause rather than the effects of anomie. Some critics believe that Merton’s theory over-predicts and exaggerated working-class crime and under-predicts and underestimates middle-class or white-collar crime. Some sociologists defend Merton’s theory. Robert Reiner points out that Merton acknowledged that not all Americans accept the success of the American Dream, though such goals are sufficiently widespread in the lower strata to account for their deviance. Reiner also notes that Merton was well aware about White Collar crime as American society placed no upper limit on success and official statistics disproportionally record crimes in the streets. But Merton emphasize more on working-
