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Antifeedants meaning “prevent feeding by the animals or other paste organism”. It is actually the naturally occurring substances from different plants. They are actually the plant secondary metabolites. They may be terpenoids, alkaloids, flavonoids, etc.
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Man suffers extensively due to the nuisance of insect populations both in agriculture and health. In agriculture, insects are directly attack the growing part of the crops, causing severe damage, resulting in a huge loss. Near 10-30% of crop loss is occurred due to the attack of insect pest. In recent days, pollution is the main fundamental issue. Even chemical insecticides, that really so disappointing to our environment and have several problems. So, now a days if we using plant product as a crop protector its really a intuitively attractive. Chemical pesticides has several bad effects such as they are broad spectrum, damaging helpful pollinator, highly toxic, long term persistence and causes bioaccumulation and biomagnification and toxic residues in food, water, air and soil. Their continue using may further harm the environment. Under this critical situations, plant derived products has tremendous advantage as pest control equipment in agriculture, veterinary and public health. Plant secondary metabolites are the main important ingredient which have antifeedant property, mainly terpenoids. Scientists are trying to find out so many plant products which have a great antifeedant effect. Plants insecticidal property with a view to find out suitable alternatives to replace hazardous synthetic pesticides utilizes in large scale in India and also in other country.
The word antifeedant first used in the western literature in 1965 by A S TAHORI, G ZEIDLER, A H HALEVY when they discover the PHOSPHON (2,4-DICHLOROBENZYLTRIBUTYL PHOSPHONIUM CHLORIDE) AS INSECT ANTIFEEDING COMPOUND. In 1980, an antifeedantent activity discovered in the plant Plumbago auriculata by Kubo I, Taniguchi M, Chapya A, Tsujimoto K In 1982, Some informations about the sesquiterpene isolated from Vernonia are described by J L LOPES,it has good antifeedant activity to molluscs, microbes and other insect. In 1988, a limonoid extract from the seed of Carapa procera by Mikolajczak K L,Weisleder D, Parkanyi L, Clardy J, which has a good antifeedant activity. In 1990, Eleven polyhydroxy alkaloids of plant origin were tested for anti-feedant effects against larvae of the lepidopteransSpodoptera littoralis, Spodoptera frugiperda, Heliothis virescens, andHelicoverpa armigera by Simmonds MS, Blaney WM, Fellows LE. In 1991, Limonoids antifeedants are discovered from seed of Sandoricum koetjape by Powell RG, Mikolajczak KL, Zilkowski BW, Mantus EK, Cherry D, Clardy J. In 1992, Sullivan TP, Crump DR, Wieser H, Dixon EA study on the influence of the plant antifeedants, pinosylvin and pinosylvin methyl ether (PME), on suppression of feeding by snowshoe hares (Lepus americanus) In 1993, Lowery DT, Isman MB Antifeedant activity of extracts from neem, Azadirachta indica, to strawberry aphid, Chaetosiphon fragaefolii. In 1995, Honda K, Saitoh T, Hara S, Hayashi N, discovered a neolignoid antifeedant against the Luehdorfia puziloi larvae lepidoptera from Heterotropa aspera, a host plant of sibling species,L. japonica. In 1999, Hernández MM, Heraso C, Villarreal ML, Vargas-Arispuro I, Aranda E discovered biological activities of crude plant extracts from Vitex trifolia L. (Verbenaceae), Mootoo BS, Ali A, Motilal R, Pingal R, Ramlal A, Khan A, Reynolds WF, McLean S, discovered limnoids from Swietenia macrophylla and Swietenia aubrevilleana. In 2001, the insect antifeedant activity of the quinones isolated from Ventilago madaraspatana was investigated by G N Krishnakumari, B Bhuvaneswari, I Raja Swapna by circular leaf disc dual choice bioassay. Amongst the quinones tested, Ventiloquinone A was the most effective antifeedant against Henosepilachna vigintioctopunctata and Spodoptera litura. In 2003, G Suresh, Geetha gopalakrishnan, S Daniel Wesley, N D Pradeep Singh, R Malathi, S S Rajan discoverd structure-related insect antifeedant relationship of 56 limonoids (both natural and modified) from the plants belonging to the order Rutales was attempted considering substitution patterns, oxidation states, and hydrophobicity, as well as distant geometry derived through conformational analysis on molecular modeling. Orientation of the furan and hydroxylation at specific carbon sites have been shown to influence the antifeedancy against the fall armyworm, Spodoptera litura.
(Spodoptera exigua) was found, indicating that these diterpenoids might also be involved in the plant defense against insect herbivores. In 2019, Thaïs Aznar-Fernández, Alessio Cimmino, Marco Masi, Diego Rubiales, Antonio Evidente high feeding deterrence was produced by some of the compounds, particularly1- hexadecanol, gliotoxin, cyclopaldic acid and seiridin. On the contrary, aphid mortality was low although significant for 1-heptadecanol, cytochalasin A, 1-nonadecanol and gliotoxin. In 2020, Priyantini Widiyaningrum, Dyah Rini Indriyanti, Bambang Priyono, Nur Asiyah, Pramita Lulu Febriuna Putri was found an effective antifeedant activity of Curcuma mangga plant extract against rice weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.). The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata (Say), is one of the most destructive pest species to have developed resistance to most chemical insecticides. In 2021 Jelica Lazarević, Igor Kostić, Slobodan Milanović, Darka Šešlija Jovanović, Slobodan Krnjajić, Dušica Ćalić , Slađan Stanković , Miroslav Kostić Tanacetum parthenium L. and Tanacetum vulgare L. (Asteraceae family) essential oil (EO) application as an alternative eco- friendly control strategy against L. decemlineata.
Organic compounds produced by the plants which helps to inhibit the attack of insect and
These are mainly plants secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites are those which are not essential for the metabolism of the plant but instead confer longevity. Among the secondary metabolites, mainly terpenoids are most effective against the pest.
Terrestrial plants produces numerous secondary metabolites, near 100,000 unique compounds and some of them are important in pest controle management. Antifeedants are found amongst the secondary metabolites i.e. Alakaloid , Flavonoid, Terpenoid. As antifeedant terpenoid has a great diversity. Terpenoids are various types i.e. Hemiterpene (one isoprene unit, 5 carbon) , Monoterpene (two isoprene unit, 10 carbon) , Sesquiterpene ( three isoprene unit , 15 carbon) , Di-terpene (four isoprene unit, 20 carbon) , Sesterterpenoid ( five isoprene unit, 25 carbon) , Tri-terpene ( six isoprene unit, 30 carbon), Tetraterpeniod ( eight isoprene unit , 30 carbon). Most effective insect antifeedants are Tri- terpeniod. Such as Azadirachtin (derived from Azadirachta indica ) , Toosendanin (derived from Melia azadirach ); alapha pirine, beta pirine, champhin, myrecene from conifer etc. Different Limnoids derived from Citrus sp. Act as very useful antifeedant such as Limonin , Nomilin , Obacunone etc. Cardenolides , Steroidal saponins and Withanolides are also the example triterpenoid which are toxic to insect. The latex of of several plants belonging to Asclepiadaceae , Apocynaceae and some plants of Moraceae often contains very high amount of Cardenolides. The word “SAPONIN” is coining from the Latin word “ Sapo ” means soap. Actually the saponin has amphiphillic character, so it is act like soap. Figure 1 : A neem tree ( Azadirachta indica ), source of Azadirachtin Figure 2 : A tree of Melia azadirach , source of Toosendanin Figure 3 : A tree of Citrus sp. a grat source of Limnoids Figure 4 : Digitalis purpurea , sorce of cardenolides
Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Haryana and Uttarakhand. Government of Rajasthan reported more than 33% crop damage due to locust. Rather than the mature locust the larvae of Schistocerca gregaria is also the reason of crop loss. The methalonic fruit extracts of Melia volkensii were first reported to have antifeedant effects against Schistocerca gregaria. BALL WORM: Bollworm is the common term for a moth larva that attacks the fruiting bodies of certain crops, especially cotton. The most common moths known as bollworms are: Red or Sudan bollworm, Diparopsis castanea Rough bollworm, Earias perhuegeli Spotted bollworm, Earias fabia Spiny bollworm, Earias insulana Spotted bollworm, Earias vittella American cotton bollworm or tomato grub, Cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa gelotopoeon Cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa punctigera Corn earworm, Helicoverpa zea Tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens Pink bollworm, Pectinophora gossypiella Pinkspotted bollworm, Pectinophora scutigera The cotton bollworm is a major pest limiting cotton productivity worldwide. Three bollworm species cause main damage on cotton in India: the pink bollworm ( Pectinophora gossypiella ), the spotted bollworm ( Earias vitella ), and the American bollworm ( Helicoverpa armigera ). The term bollworm usually represents all different species. Cotton, the most important commercial crop of India ranks first in acreage in the world. In India cotton is cultivated on 105.00 lakh ha. with average productivity of 68 kg lint per ha. In Maharashtra cotton crop is grown on 38.06 lakh ha with production of 83.25 lakh bales and productivity of 398.00 kg/ha. Approximately 62 per cent of India’s Cotton is produced on rain-fed areas and 38 per cent on irrigated land. In terms of productivity, India ranks poorly compared to USA & China during 2016-17. Major constraint in attaining high production of seed cotton is the damage inflicted by insect pests. According to an estimate, cotton crop on around 40 lakh hectare in Maharashtra has been completely destroyed due to the ball worm in 2017. Around 80% cotton crop in Maharashtra is infested. These pests have been a major cause of crop loss in Gujarat, Telangana, Panjab and Maharashtra over the last couple of years. Figure 8 Cotton ball is damaged by Sudan bollworm Figure 9 Okra or Ladie's finger fruit damaged by Earias sp. Figure 10 : Bean fruit damaged by Helicoperva sp. Figure 12: PINK BALLWORM
Stem borers in the order Lepidoptera are widely prevalent and serious insect pests of rice. In India, 18 stem borer species in the family Pyralidae and three species in the family Noctuidae have been recorded (Banerjee, 1964; Kapur, 1967). Usually one to four species are important in any given area. The predominant species in India include yellow stem borer, Scirpophaga incertulas , striped stem borer, Chilo suppressalis (Walker), and pink stem borer, Sesamia inferens (Walker). Of these species, S.inferens is restricted primarily to hill regions in northern India and Bengal in eastern India. Occasionally, other species like the white rice borer, S.innotata may be encountered. The yellow stem borer, S.incertulas is the most dominant species in India. Yellow stemborer damage can lead to about 20% yield loss in early planted rice crops , and 80% in late- planted crops. The stem borer larvae bore at the base of the plants during the vegetative stage. On older plants, they bore through the upper nodes and feed toward the base. The yellow stem borer is a pest of deepwater rice. It is found in aquatic environments where there is continuous flooding. Second instar larvae enclose themselves in body leaf wrappings to make tubes and detach themselves from the leaf and falls onto the water surface. They attach themselves to the tiller and bore into the stem. Striped stem borer is most abundant in temperate countries and in non-flooded areas. Their final instars remain dormant in temperate areas during winter. The pink stem borer is found in upland rice, which is grown near sugarcane or related grasses. The presence of alternate hosts encourages the pink stem borer to develop, multiply and survive during winter or dry season. Unlike other species of stem borers, the pink stem borer lay bare eggs between the leaf sheath and the stem. Excessive boring through the sheath can destroy the crop. Its damage can reduce the number of reproductive tillers. At late infection, plants develop whiteheads. Yellow stemborer damage can lead to about 20% yield loss in early planted rice crops, and 80% in late- planted crops. Figure 13: Scirpophaga incertulas Figure 14: Scirpophaga incertulas LARVAE Figure 15: CROP INFECTED BY STEM BORER
HOW ANTIFEEDANTS ARE WORKED ON PESTS: Azadirachtin : Azadirachtin is a very effective antifeedant. Azadirachtin inhibited the growth of larvae of different pest such as the larvae of many lepidopteran species are major pests in agriculture. Some of the major pests include Tortricidae, Noctuidae, and Pyralidae. The larvae of the Noctuidae genus Spodoptera (armyworms), Helicoverpa (corn earworm), or Pieris brassicae can cause extensive damage to certain crops. Helicoverpa zea larvae (cotton bollworms or tomato fruitworms) are polyphagous, meaning they eat a variety of crops, including tomatoes and cotton. Peridroma saucia (variegated cutworms) are described as one of the most damaging pests to gardens, with the ability to destroy entire gardens and fields in a matter of days. Azadirachtin is effective up on pest by structure destroy and size inhibition of the midgut. Digital gene expression analysis of midgut revealed that azadirachtin regulated the transcriptional level of multiple unigenes involved in mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and calcium apoptotic signaling pathways. Azadirachtin increases the level of caspase family proteins and apoptosis-binding motif 1.
armigera. (A) Ventral view of the head showing a pair of antennae (An), the labrum (Lr), the mandible (Mn), the labium (La), the maxillary palps (MP) on the maxilla, and the spinneret (Sp). (B) Close-up view showing the two sensilla styloconica, i.e. the lateral sensillum styloconicum (Ls) and the medial sensillum styloconicum (Ms) located on the maxilla (Ma). (C) Close-up view of the medial and the lateral sensillum styloconicum located on one galea (G). (D) Near view showing the socketed conic tip (Co) inserted into the large peg of a sensillum styloconicum. Scale bars: 500 μm in A, 200 μm in B, 50 μm in C, and 5 μm in D.
The antifeedant effect was mediated via the activation of deterrent receptor situated in the medial sensillum styloconicum. It could also inhibit the transmission of cholinergic nerve signalling and calcium channel in suboesophageal ganglion and reduce the frequency of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents. These reductions in nerve cell conductivity resulted in the dysfunction of pest central nervous system and promoting antifeedant behavior. In addition to feeding behavior, azadirachtin also inhibited insect growth and development. Azadirachtin has shown significant antifeedant and growth inhibitory action on S. litura at the concentration of 10–100 parts per million (ppm) and 1–10 ppm respectively (Govindachari et al., 1996). It was also demonstrated that azadirachtin had other significant physiological effects on S. litura, including deformity of larvae, pupae and adult, reduction of the protein synthesis of pupae, hemolymph volume of the last instar larvae, enzyme activities of larvae gut, and cuticular protein level changes of larvae (Sharma et al., 2003; Huang et al., 2004; Nathan et al., 2005; Jeyasankar et al., 2011; Yooboon et al.,2015). Figure 16 :Figure 15 Morphological change and histopathological observation of midgut in S. litura larvae fed with azadirachtin added diet. (A) Morphological change of midgut in larvae fed with azadirachtin added diet; (B) Histopathological observation of midgut in larvae fed with azadirachtin added diet. (B1) Control: control group with the normal condition; (B2) Azadirachtin: azadirachtin- treated group with significant histopathological change. Scale bar = 100μm. The plasmamembrane damage and organelle degeneration in plasmatocytes and granular haemocytes were also induced by azadirachtin (Sharma et al., 2003). The insect midgut functions as the important site for food digestion and nutritional absorption during insect growth and development. It was reported that azadirachtin could exert multiple effects on pest midgut. For example, azadirachtin reduced the levels and activities of midgut digestive enzymes of Glyphodes pyloalis (Khosravi and Sendi, 2013). Additionally, azadirachtin disturbed the serotoninergic system of stomatogastric ganglia and inhibited the peristalsis of midgut in Locusta migratoria (Trumm and Dorn, 2000). Recent study has found that azadirachtin induced apoptosis in SL-1 cell line, which was derived from the ovary of S. litura (Huang et al., 2011). More recently, autophagy-related gene 5 was confirmed to be the molecular switch of autophagy and apoptosis induced by azadirachtin in SL-1 cells (Shao et al., 2016). TOOSENDANIN:
their EC50 determined to be 59.57, 26.61 and 6.31 ppm, respectively. The 7-membered lactone was considered to be responsible for the better insecticidal activity of nomilin and obacunone over limonin. Besides, moult inhibition effect by three limonoids was also observed (Jayaprakasha, Singh, Pereira, & Sakariah, 1997). In another model of Spodoptera frugiperda (a commercially important pest) (Ruberto, Renda, Tringali, Napoli, & Simmonds, 2002), however, limonin demonstrated the most significant antifeedant potency (feeding index=87), followed by obacunone and nomilin (feeding index = 68 and 56, respectively), suggesting different behavioural responses of two insect species to structural alteration. Obacunone was demonstrated to possess insecticidal activity against Mythimna separata (Walker): it exhibited 23.3% mortality rate compared with 26.7% mortality of reference drug toosendanin at 1 mg/mL after 20 days (Yu, Ding, Zhi, & Xu, 2015). Limonin and nomilin were tested for larvicidal activity against A. albopictus using a method recognized by the World Health Organization: LC50 of compound limonin at 24, 48, and 72 h were 850.09, 600.72, and 407.09 μM, respectively, while nomilin presented more substantial larvicidal effect with the corresponding LC50 of 305.83, 176.08, and 136.07 μM (Hafeez, Akram, & Shaalan, 2011). According to these studies, limonin, nomilin, and obacunone were most investigated for their anti-insect activities, while their potency against different insects varied significantly. Considering their good activities against some of the representative insects (e.g. Mythimna separata, Culex quinquefasciatus ) and safety profile in human, Citrus limonoids represent a class of anti-insect compounds worthy of further study. PHYTOECDYSON : Phytoecdyson isolated from the plant Polipodium vulgare. It is steroid in nature and structurally resembling with the moulting hormone and bind with the receptor of moulting hormone and causes premature moulting of phyto-nematodes. FURANO COUMARINS : Coumarins with the furan ring is called furano coumarins. This belongs to the lactones or Benzopyranones. Inactivated furanocouramins activated by the ultraviolet A. The activated furanocouramis is toxic to predators. Furanocouramins act as intercalating agent and they block the process of DNA replication, transcription and translation. Protein synthesis and cell division is inhibited by the chemicals. They are found in the plants of Umbelliferae family. Figure: PHYTOECDYSON Figure: FURANOCOURAMINS
Biological variety and variability of our earth is enormous. So many organisms even not discovered yet, and also the variability of organism is rising day by day. Even 86 % of Earth’s species still unknown or unnamed. We should give more effort to study all organisms very well and collect more accurate data about each and every organism .Now a days, crops are destroyed by pests very badly and also the chemical pesticides are used in wide range. In the result, the insects are more resistant to insecticides. To solve this problem, we should use plant antifeedants. Antifeedant activity of so many plants are unknown to us. So we need more information about plant antifeedant activity which are not discovered yet and how it works on crop protection. We should also make a clear idea about that the plant product is not harmful to human or other non-target animal.
